ABSTRACT
Reformers had to choose with care the systems they borrowed from Europe. They soon learned that a westernizing program in defense could not be blocked off from the rest of society. Military, political, and economic reforms sparked reactions in seemingly remote areas, often catching the reformers off guard. Egypt made the fastest and most dramatic transformation of any Middle Eastern country in the nineteenth century. Since 1517 the country had been ruled by the Ottoman Empire, but an early rebellion had taught Istanbul to leave local control to the Mamluks, the aristocracy of ex-slave soldiers who had ruled Egypt since 1250. It was a fantasy never realized, but Napoleon did defeat the Mamluks easily and occupied Cairo. France's occupation of Egypt was harsh, heavy handed, and hated. Taxes and government fees, high but sporadic under the Mamluks, were now collected regularly from everyone, making them seem more oppressive.
