ABSTRACT
The Spanish American wars of independence inspired sharp rhetorical attacks on Spain's work in America. The differences among Spanish American elites produced a long, uphill struggle to achieve stable societies. For Sarmiento, a cultural divide between the forces of civilization and barbarism characterized most early nineteenth-century Latin American societies. In the decades after independence, Latin American leaders debated which road their countries should take to reach the goals of economic progress and political stability. The generally upward movement of Brazilian economic life and the considerable political skills of the emperor contributed to the success with which the system functioned for half a century. Bolivar goes to great pains to balance the pressing need for strong executive authority and the compelling desire for democratic political institutions. If the principle of political equality is generally recognized, so also must be the principle of physical and moral inequality.
