ABSTRACT
Years of research and analysis by biographers, historians, and management scholars have produced an enormous library of books that the authors claim offer important findings and insights on leaders and leadership. The leadership mandate for integrity and character is less obvious. Most North American theorists have underestimated the critical importance of social norms in setting behavior paradigms for leaders. Notwithstanding the occasional success of "leaderless groups", it seems axiomatic that organizations perform better when an effective leader is at the helm. Organizations seem to perversely select and retain leaders who are not up to the task. They lack either competence or character or both. Recognizing an effective leader is not always easy, for leaders do not necessarily reveal themselves by the force of their personality or the acclaim of a multitude of followers. It is especially difficult to identify good leadership in the short run.
