ABSTRACT
A guerrilla war raged in Spain, while in Italy widespread dislike of the Napoleonic order affected all regions and classes. Since the Napoleonic police prevented open opposition, Italians formed secret societies. Especially active in the South during the Napoleonic period, they were the first widespread, influential groups advocating independence and a constitution. The "pure Italians," led by Count Federico Confalonieri, had a particularly unrealistic program. With Napoleon tottering, they hoped to eliminate French influence, gain British support to prevent an Austrian restoration, and obtain the Kingdom of Italy's independence by accepting any king agreeable to the allies. In October 1815, Joachim Murat landed once more on Neapolitan soil, seeking to reconquer his "beautiful Kingdom." The historiographic debate regarding Murat's role in Italian history has followed the course of his ghost—at first it was agitated, and then it disappeared. This first war for Italian unity, however premature, deserves special mention as the first concrete step in a long process.
