ABSTRACT
Americans accustomed to a history measured in centuries may find it difficult to contemplate the Middle East's time lines. Great cities with running water, thriving commercial systems, libraries, paved streets, and other "modern" amenities existed more than 5,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent. Those living in the modern Middle East view their past with a mixture of pride and regret. They point to the accomplishments of the Umayyad and Abbasid periods in comparison to Europe in those times, where most of the population lived in mud huts and used rudimentary tools during the Dark Ages. After regional armies defeated the Crusaders in 1290 ce, European influence in the Middle East waned. There were occasional forays into the area, as when Napoleon attacked Egypt and Palestine between 1798 and 1801, or when the combined forces of Europe and the new United States attacked the North African Barbary Coast states whose corsairs pirated commerce in the Mediterranean Sea.
