ABSTRACT
Analysts and modern commentators have expended hundreds, perhaps thousands, of hours upon the text, seeking out collateral passages and similarly illuminating phrases. Several commentators identify the various two character terms as in fact naming particularized formations rather than designating general characteristics. However, while some of them clearly belong to the former category, in general it must be doubted that armies could have mastered so many individual, complex formations. The foundation was grouping the men into squads, companies, and armies according to a rigid hierarchical system. Gongs, drums, pennants, and flags are the means to unify the men's ears and eyes. Insignia were associated with every level, from the lowest to the highest, including dynastic houses. For example, the Ssu-ma Fa records that "for flags, the Hsia had a black one at the head representing control of men.
