ABSTRACT
This chapter examines women as political actors in a variety of political roles such as legislative, executive, judicial, military and at different levels of government such as local, state, and federal, some elected and some appointed. It suggests that women's power beyond the agenda-setting stage of policy formation may be limited by their lack of significant numbers and the influence that comes with leadership positions within institutions of government. Contemporary political theorist Hannah Fenichel Pitkin describes four types of political representation: formal, descriptive, symbolic, and substantive. Substantive representation occurs when women act for other women by pursuing distinctive interests and policy preferences unique to women. Beth Reingold and Kerry L. Haynie caution that to do so is to risk obscuring the representational advocacy provided by women of color, while privileging that provided by white women. Solid majorities of Republicans and Democrats say men and women are equally qualified for political leadership.
