Troilus and Criseyde

and also major sections of Books II into the narrative flow of Fit, but without and III -have been created in such an active counterpart in the Italian. One such addition, response to the process of "translating" the early in the poem, concludes by referring to Italian text. Comparison with reveals how thing collateral (I, 262), and the term is useful closely Ch often works within the business in suggesting how much influential material - translating, yet how different in tone and in important in the way that it alters the

Fil. B was not concerned. So much features that added vehemence with which has been compacted into TC that it is feasible Ch has re-expressed his original in English. to envisage a much emended draft, with notes, Ch's intensifications of his source can reveal additions, improvements. It is thus not unlikely the distinctive ways in which his own poetic that this very addedness of Ch's proven imagination worked, and it an imagination additions to once had a physical form as that expresses itself in translation by a

expands the sense of a sequence of related elaborate B's brief note that Criseida tore actions by his own additions in translating ( hair ( 4.87), visualizing how Criseyde's slender I, 605-7). Ch's poetic texture is much denser fingers twine and tear about in her wavy with such added representations - "ownded" tresses (IV, 736-8). And it is this impressionistic rather than mimetic -of the interest in texture and violent movement

as is well known- this immediately thickens the texturedness of adapted the tone and role of the first-person the English poem here and adds another narratorial voice from Fit, and this is seen at dimension to the sense of inward process. the very start of TC, where Ch omits B's Again, whereas Troiolo simply "feels" "autobiographical" proem and makes little use something in his breast (1.44), for Ch this of Fit for his own proem. Fit is presented by its

in-eched the approach to love within which the poem's to be left to die unknown (I, 616). And it is action narrated. Yet it is important to see characteristic of the greater vehemence of the positives as well as the criticisms which are antithesis and contrast built into the texture of embedded into Ch's handling of Troilus by his Ch's translating that the English Troilus translation method. Because of the way that the expresses the added wish, not in Fil, that

poem also shows much more concern to notice the social texture of manners, observances, translation much in-eched astrological allusion decorums and proprieties (e.g. I, 126; II, 596). and definition (e.g. IV, 1591-2; V, 1016-22, Such interest in the society of his poem's 1189-90). world extends to a marked trend in Ch's The added concern with providence, together

sleeve (1042-3), of Criseyde's nursing of Diomede and tears over his wounds (1044-50). Ch further turns to Benoit for "historical" details, including the desertion of Calkas (I, One of the major sources of Ch's interpolations 64ff.), capture and the truce (IV, into his translation (both in number of

Other resemblances would include the model Ch's main reminiscences of Dante's Divine of the dialogue between Boethius and his Comedy are spread throughout TC: their interlocutor Lady Philosophy as an influence on potency out of proportion to their number the pattern and content of the exchanges and density in the way that Ch uses them to add

or echo the Roman (I, 743-9; III, 1634). (III, 543, 729-30), he is concerned to thicken Moreover, Ch recalls in some of the the texture of classical reference (e.g. III, learnedness, sententiousness and sense of 720-35), to set the poem's action within a paradox from the Roman: Reason's reference universe peopled with storied names and more to weeping like an alembic recalled (IV, 520); busied with an idea of their functions and

P. M. Kean, Chaucer and the Making Poetry (London, 1972), ch. 4. 3. Cf. my article, "Chaucer and the Filostrato," in Chaucer and the Italian Trecento, ed. P. Boitani (Cambridge, 1983). See the Appendix on the question of Beauvau . " MLN, 50 (1935), 277-96; J.P. 1315-6; O'Connor, "The Astronomical Dating of 9. Cf. introductions in V. Branca, ed., Tutte le Chaucer's Troilus," JEGP, 55 (1956), 556-62; opere di Giovanni Boccaccio, Vol. II (Milan, J. P. McCall and G. Rudisill, "The Parliament 1964), and The Filostrato of Giovanni Boccaccio: of 1386 and Chaucer's Trojan Parliament," A Translation with Parallel Text, ed. N. E. JEGP, 58 (1959), 276-88; J.D. North, Griffin and A. B. Myrick (Philadelphia, 1929). their "Troilus and Criseyde: The Art of connection with the speaker abstract Amplification," (in) Medieval Literature and speeches must be taken as impersonal comments Folklore Studies: Essays in Honor of Francis Lee on the action, Ch's formulation, not his Utley (New Brunswick, 1970), pp. 155-71; characters'" (pp. 264-5, n. 50). Cf. also Derek

56-75. See also J. M. Steadman, '"Courtly 719, 1167. On "backwards texture" see my Love' as a Problem of Style," in Chaucer und article "The 'Paynted Proces' ". seine Zeit, ed. A. Esch (Tubingen, 1968); The 23. Cf. the frequent added emphasis on speed of Meaning actions (e.g. II, 598, 1094; III, 350; IV, 220-4, (Albany, 1968); E. T. Donaldson, Speaking 350; etc.) and on the continuation of actions and Troilus and Criseyde," Spec, 31 (1956), 71-153; E. T. Donaldson, "Briseis, Briseida, 297-315. Criseyde, Cresseid, Cressid: Progress of a 20. Cf. John P. McCall, "The Trojan Scene in Heroine," (in) Chaucerian Problems and Chaucer's Troilus," ELH, 29 (1962), 263-75, Perspectives, ed. E. Vasta and Z. P. Thundy and his Chaucer among the Gods (Pennsylvania (Notre Dame, 1979), 3-12.

(Cambridge, 1980). Boccaccio del Filostrato e del Teseida (Florence, Cf. B. L. Jefferson, Chaucer and the Consolation 1936). For I, 428; IV, 246, 869. 36. Cf. E. H. Wilkins, "Cantus Troili," ELH, 16 J. J. Mogan, Chaucer and the Theme of (1949), 167-73; P. Thomson, "The 'Canticus Mutability (The Hague, 1969); I. L. Gordon, Troili': Chaucer and Petrarch," Comparative The Double Sorrow of Troilus (Oxford, 1970); Literature, (1959), 313-28. A. Stroud, "Boethius' Influence on Chaucer's 37. Cf. James I. Wimsatt, "Guillaume de Machaul Troilus," MP, 49 (1951-2), 1-9; M. W. and Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde," Medium

Bv and Ch are both translating the same Italian It has been suggested, and often accepted, that context, it scarcely surprising that Ch will in composing Ch made use of Le Roman de coincide in using diction, or a construction, Troi"lus et de Criseida, a French prose which closer to French, which has influenced translation of Filby a certain Beauvau, English, than to Italian. The relationship in

in my judgement, on a comparison of Fil, Ch's y-wroke translates vendicata (5.57), not Bv, and one could present as many or Bv's quite different version ("Bien est voustre more cases where Ch's and B's vocabulary haulte puissance craindre et doubter coincide significantly as against Bv's. And p. 256). whereas resemblances between Ch and Bv Although Bv is a very full translator, Ch involve some very trivial likenesses, sometimes preserves more of Fil. Thus Bv resemblances between Ch and B suggest Ch overlooks Criseida's kneeling to Hector could understand Fil well enough. We find Ch (ginocchion si gitto), 1.12; On knees shefil, I,

Fil. at hom" IV, 92-3) I "que of the same material could feel equally moved hostel je laissay" (p. 201). [3] "sanza to add emphases in translating, to bring out the ascoltare o volgersi ad alcuno" ( 4.22) I implicit force of the original: e.g. terms of "with,outen wordes mo" (IV, 219) I "sans

as the near-contemporaries of Ch -can offer us attending to in all lines: their intelligence and the earliest line-by-line literary criticism of Ch's sensitivity will of course vary enormously. poetry, a reaction to what in the poet's text Scribal critical response as reflected through makes it distinctive and remarkable in its own misunderstanding or interference will be at very time. various levels of consideredness as literary

given line. In a sense, survives for each line scribe copied by memorizing one line at a time, somewhere mid-way in a band of possible his allegiance to his copy would be strongest at scribal variation on either side. The scribes the opening of the line and at the rhyme, with differ frequently amongst themselves over the its own mnemonic effect. The scribe's grammatical forms of the poetry they are accuracy to his copy would be least strong copying and over its minutiae of expression, so

H2H4 show how a scribe been considered as completed and authentic overlooked a passage on a loose leaf, then without the Boethian stanzas of Troilus's song. there is no reason to see the absence of the The Boethian song contains four stanzas, and passage from Ph itself as having any further thus very comparable in size as a feature of significance either. The evidence of the MSS MSS with the absence from certain MSS of docs not indicate a distinct earlier version

contains the passage, but between Boethian soliloquy in Book III (813-40), like the main soliloquy and that final stanza that of Troilus in Book IV, very probably (1079-85) which Gg contains, there is a started life as an added sheet incorporated into blank page, a cancelled leaf, and another Ch's narrative. But Criseyde's soliloquy blank space. At the foot of the last written taken as a sign of a later, augmented version of page, after the main body of the soliloquy, is

although Gg does not contain those stanzas ffor we[ he thoughte ther was non other grace actually translated from Boethius but only Ch's (Cp). own last transitional stanza (1079-85), that last The differences between H3Ph and the others stanza explicitly describes the English are not very substantial, but both readings may Pandarus interrupting Troilus "whil he was in al be authentic. The significant difference lies this heuynesse I Disputyng with hymself in this can also be seen to imply the presence of the Boethian discussion of free choice and Boethian passage. In Fil, when Pandaro finds necessity" (TT, p. 219), and the Gg and 1 Troiolo pensoso he simply asks him whether he parents were derived at some stage before this is as miserable as he appears. But inCh's process of revision was complete and so reflect version Pandarus not only expresses himself the gaps in the author's draft. But granted their

others which apparently go back to Ch's first B. Her ownded here pat sunnisshe was translation of the Italian, suggests that this hewe (Ph ornyd) the survival, possibly corrupted, of a "rough" 'Alas,' quod she, 'out of this regioun early draft. 'What shal y done, what shal he done This also the impression made by also variations between the MSS over the poem's

essential feature of Root's approach that if an uncorrected draft stage, and as such is some readings in a group are judged authentic unlikely to he part of an authentically then all variations in that group can be seen in completed text. the light of possible authenticity. But in the Beyond this, does Phetc have any distinct circumstances of scribal copying there character as a "state of the poem" -beyond its necessary reason why a few authentic readings

Flegetoun gentilesse" (1413-4). now in the Rctr MSS incorrect classical allusion from a correct one. that the poet apologizes for his inexperience. Again, at III, 1360, 1482, Rete seems nearer There is nothing positively inappropriate in than other MSS to Fil, while at III, 1115, IV, this, but nor do the stanzas have any special 594, it seems corrupted away from Fil. And in attachment and continuity in this later position, some lines Cpete MSS have a superior reading as they do in the earlier. I kan namore" (1312-4); only mentioned their joy in "this nyght that was "this heuene blisse That is so heigh that a! to hem so deere" (1411). Some variant readings

survival of Rosemounde, one of the poet's short Cpetc MSS (Root's "midway" version) have the lyrics, could indicate that this stanza text in a state closest here to the Italian source. authentic part of the poet's composition. But improbable that any truly "midway" state however tantalizing the existence of this solitary of the text between the earlier, "more Italian" stanza, there something even more peculiar version, and the final "revision" of a in R. This MS does not contain the proems to successively revised poem would have a feature Books II, III and IV. Again, Book V, Rand of the source possessed by neither of the other H4 alone of all the MSS do not contain the "versions". The resemblance to Fil depends on Latin summary of Statius (after V, 1498). It is

suggest that the poet returned here and there to Gower's and Langland's MSS represent how his text. Yet for Chaucer-as the evidence of those poets intended their work should be read MSS embodies in itself-the great work was by a public at various times, the TC MSS can already done. reflect more intimately how the poem was written, and then how read by its scribes. The

16. The following are some Phetc variants which more interesting differences, cf. II, 738, 1083; reflect the generally discernible scribal III, 459. The three MS groupings do not support characteristic responses to TC. Substitution: I, the conception of an authentic text repeatedly 36, 63, 88, 255; IV, 110, 131, 139, 160, 238, 397. and creatively overwritten at the same difficult Paraphrase: I, 123, 257; IV, 923. Cliches and passages.

Decameron (Codice Hamiltoniano 90), (Padua, 1565 (Quo C. vocat P. vulpem); 1\T, 68 (peticio 1962). Calcasii in consistorio), 145 (declaracio volutatis 27. Deguilleville saw the first, stolen draft of his ambassiatorum grecorum), 177-8 (verba Ectoris work circulated against his will, and to correct it contra Grecos in parliamento ), 185-6 (vox he was obliged to issue a new one, Pilgrimage populi in oppositum), 1152 (Quo C. dimisit ), 1052 (in langore C. 637,643,688,809,949;11,396,474, 1099,1266, dimisit fidem dolendo), 1060 (prophesia 1385;111,98,307,321,329,402,829, 1097,1146, (Cassandra soror Troili monstrans sibi signa 1210,1453, 1631;1\7,483, 770,784,1256, 1457; sui somnij), 1464 (Quo Diana misit capram in 146, 542, 763, 1003, 1255. (2] Nota with name terram grecorum), 1529-30 (Nota de morte or brief comment: II, 756 (nota contra maritos), Alceste per amore mariti).

from a concept of metrical structure"; M. Borroff, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: A Stylistic and Metrical Study (New Haven and London, 1962), p. 172. 5. The seven-line "rhyme royal" stanza, which Ch apparently the first poet to use in English, is Stanley, "Stanza and Ictus: Chaucer's Emphasis Troilus and Criseyde," (in) Chaucer und seine Ch tolerates great variations on the pattern by Zeit, Symposion fur Walter Schirmer, ed. Arno comparison with later poets working in the Esch (Tiibingen, 1968), pp. 123-48. same metre, there indication that his 6. Recurrent errors detrimental to regularity would recently-introduced pattern itself being include small-scale omissions or insertions, such

text of Fil is taken from the edition by V. P, as the context allows. Italian and English Pernicone (Bari, 1937; reviewed G. Contini, name-forms refer to the characters in the GSLI, 112 (1938), 96-101). Beauvau is cited respective poems. It must be remembered, of from L. Moland and C. d'Hericault, eds., course, thatCh himself will have been working Nouvelles fram;oises en prose du xive siecle from a manuscript copy of Fil, and the present

Wales. Decorated capitals at I, 57; II, 1, 50; containing a fragment of TC (ends, mid-page, III, 1, 50; IV, 29; V, 1. Full pattern of incipits with III, 532) together with a miscellany and explicits for proems and books at poems hy Chaucer, Hoccleve, Lydgate, etc. transitions between Bks I and II, II and III. (See Hammond, Bib. 1(i), pp. 339-40). MS After IV, 28: Explicit liber tercius. Incipit dated by Parkes, English Cursive Bookhands liber tercius. 220 mm, containing only For a full account Dg throughout agrees with Cpetc and is most of the MS, seeM. B. Parkes (Bib. 1(iii)), closely related to S2. Its text is characterized by "Palaeographical Description and frequent instances of scribal imprecision in Commentary". dated by Parkes to the first response to the form of TC lines, with much quarter of the fifteenth century. Written, in two careless omission of small words, paraphrase,

without intervening spaces between stanzas and 1807-IV, 112; IV, 1667-V, 35; V, 1702-end. split between pages as necessary. Large For the presentation of the text of TC, see flourished initials at I, 1, 57; II, 1, 50; III, 1, 50; Parkes and Beadle, pp. 41-2. (Five stanzas per IV, 29; V, 1. Book-division marked: full page, to be marked by paraphs in red and blue, pattern of incipits and explicits for proems and the blue unexecuted. Note frequent 197, 323, 414, 687, 771, 906, 1100, liber quintus. 1541, 1590). agrees with Cpetc, and particularly agrees Gg is a composite text variously agreeing with A in many readings. It presents a with Rete and Phete. Up to II, 64 Gg agrees characteristic scribal reading of the TC text. with Rete; between II, 64 and 1210, it seems a mixed text, mainly agreeing with Phete, but The surviving containing only TC. Written (with occasional pictures indicate a programme of illustration neat corrections) in one regular hand, which unique in Chaucer manuscripts"). MS dated by has added some glosses in Latin and English. Parkes and Beadle (p. 7) to the first quarter of Layout: generally six stanzas per page the fifteenth century, most probably the second marked by red or blue paraphs. Full pattern of

H3 MS HARLEY 1239, BRITISH close to Cp, and consistently holds with the LIBRARY Cpete MSS. The MS is both finely and relatively carefully written, with some feeling for metre. Vellum MS, 107leaves, 397 mm x 146 mm, containing TC and selections from CT (KnT, MLT, WBT, CIT, FranklT; for description, see 1033; Hand 2 writes II, 1034-III, 1603; III, Vellum MS, 116leaves, 260 mm x 145 mm, 1758-end; Hand 3 writes III, 1604-1759 containing only TC. Written in four hands: (1758-9 by both hands). Mid fifteenth century 1-70 Hand 3 date. I, 71-497 Hand 1 Layout: generally nine stanzas per page, with

both Fil than other MSS ( cf. IV, 51, 57, and passages are omitted in mid-page without gap. 1301n.). H4 is closely related to those parts of H2 written by Hands 3 and In character H4 offers interesting evidence H4 MS HARLEY 2392, BRITISH for scribal reading of TC, with a tendency paraphrases of individual lines. 146 mm, containing only TC, in one fifteenth century hand. Layout: four stanzas per page, with a large HS MS HARLEY 4912, BRITISH number of marginal glosses in Latin, and also LIBRARY some interlinear glosses in English and Latin.

along with the Statius TC because its patterns of agreements reveal argument (V, 1498). Note also that R contains that it has been edited between Rete and Cpetc, the unique stanza found after II, 1750. In the and consequently offers a mixed text. But as body of the poem R contains a text which has such it offers significant evidence for some of been copied with some intelligent scribal the processes which may lie behind the features interest in the poem and its form. of composite TC MSS. Incipit prohemium probably written c.1488 by the Scots scribe, after II, 49, only "Explicit prohemium James Gray, protege of Henry Sinclair, 3rd and after III, 49, only "Incipit liber " By II, Earl of Orkney, whose arms appear after the Inuocacio. By III, 1806: Explicit liber colophon of MS dated on palaeographical Tercius. By IV, 29: Incipit quartus liber. After

IV, 1701: Explicit liber quartus. lncipit liber presents a corrected text of the Cpetc quintus et ultimus. type, although with some agreements S2 holds consistently with the Cpetc MSS, and with Phetc in Bk I. particularly close to Dg, which it resembles in its inaccuracy and imprecision.

62-6). Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, F8 Huntington Library, EL 26.A.13, ff. ii, iii. VI (1944-7), 279-80. Containing I, 631-7, I, 400-6. (See H. N. F15 Love complaint of four rhyme royal MacCracken, MLN, 25 (1910), 126-7). stanzas adapted from TC, IV, 288-308, Trinity College, Cambridge, MS R.4.20, 13-14, 323-9 in Add. MS 17492, f.29v. Geofrey Chauser. Donn into Lattine with A XVIII, see G. B. Pace, Spec, 26 (1951), the Comments [in English and Latin) by Sir 307-8. Fra: Kynaston Knight 1639. Begun August F13 One stanza (1, 946-52) in British Library, Anno 1639". The first two books without Additional MS 17492, f.59v. SeeR. commentary were published in Oxford, 1635. Southall, "The Devonshire Manuscript Cf. also the English modernisation: H. G.

that a widewes Iif, so god 30w sane? god, 3e maken me ryght soore adradde, 3e ben so wylde, it semeth as 3e raue. To bidde and rede on holy seyntes Iynes; Lat maydens gon to daunce and 3onge wyues." "As euere thriue I," quod this Pandarus, "3et koude I telle a thyng to doon 30w pleye." "Now Uncle deere," quod she, "telle it vs

Thei faren wei, god saue hem bothe two; ffor trewelich I holde it gret deynte, 165 A kynges sone in armes wei to do, And ben of good condiciouns therto; ffor grete power and moral vertue here That is to mene Ector and Troilus - That certeynly, though that 1 sholde deye, Thei ben as voide of vices, dar I seye, any men that lyuen vndre the sonne; 175 Hire myght wyde i-knowe, and what they konne.

"' "Lo, he that is al holy 30ures free Hym recomaundeth lowely to 30ure grace, novelle?- And sente 30w this Iettre here by me. Auyseth 30w on it, whan 3e han space, what sholde I more seye? "And loketh now if this be resonable, And Ietteth nought for fauour ne for slouthe To seyn a sooth; now were it couenable To myn estat, by god and by 3oure trouthe,

verray god, so haue I ronnel 1465 Lo, Nece myn, se 3e nought how I swete? I not wheither 3e the more thank me konne. Be 3e naught war how false Poliphete Is now aboute eftsones forto plete And brynge on 30w aduocacies newe?"

Quod Troilus, 1685 I wol right fayn with my myght ben oon, Haue god my trouthe, hire cause to sustene." "Good thrift haue 3e," quod Eleyne the queene. Quod Pandarus, "and it 3oure wille be, elles god forbede it," tho quod he, that she vouche saufforto do so." And with that word quod Troilus, "3e two, Deiphebus and my suster lief and deere, To 30w haue I to speke of o matere, 1695 "To ben auysed by 30ure reed the bettre."

with my deth 3oure wreththe may apese. But syn that 3e han herd me somwhat seye, Now recche I neuere how soone that I deye." Ther-with his manly sorwe to biholde, It myghte han made an herte of stoon to rewe, 115 And Pandare wep as he to water wolde, goodly fresshe free, That with the stremes of 3oure eyen deere 130 3e wolde som-tyme frendly on me see, And thanne agreen that I may ben he, With-outen braunche of vice on any wise, In trouthe alwey to don 30w my seruise,

Quod Pandarus, "lo, here an hard requeste, And resonable, a lady forto werne! Now Nece myn, by natal Ioues feste, Were I a god 3e sholden sterue as 3erne, That heren wei this man wol no thing 3erne

thynketh me, now stokked in prisoun, In wrecchidnesse, in filthe, and in vermyne, Caytif to cruel kyng Agamenoun; And this in all the temples of this town, "But he that gooth for gold or for ricchesse On swich message, calle hym what the Iiste; And this that thow doost, calle it gentilesse, e Elena Compassiouit, and felawship, and triste;

Fi/4211- III, m. I, 9; IV. m. 6.17. (H4 vnkynde vice, etc. Rete (1438-9, 1441). Cf. Rete at

And ner he com and seyde, "how stant it now This mury morwe, Nece, how kan 3e fare?" Criseyde answerde, "neuere the bet for 30w, 1565 ffox that 3e ben, god 3eue 3oure herte kare! God help me so, 3e caused al this fare, With that she gan hire face forto wrye 1570 With the shete, and wax for shame al reede; Pandarus gan vnder forto prie, And seyde, "Nece, if that I shal be dede, Haue here a swerd and smyteth of myn hede." frend of frendes the alderbeste That euere was, the sothe for to telle, Thow hast in heuene y-brought my soule at reste 1600 tiro Flegitoun, the fery flood of helle; That, though I myght a thousand tymes selle Up-on a day my lif in thi seruise,

Tho gan he telle hym of his glade nyght, And wher-of first his herte dred, and how, And seyde, "frend, as I am trewe knyght, And by that feyth I shal to god and 30w, But now I feele a newe qualitee, 1655 3ee, al a-nother than I didde er this." Pandare answerd and seyde thus, that That ones may in heuene blisse be,

How sholde a fissh with-outen water dure? What Criseyde worth from Troilus? How sholde a plaunte or lyues creature Lyue with-outen his kynde noriture? ffor which ful ofte a byword here I seye, Dar I noon handle for the crueltee, That ilke day that I from 30w departe, sorwe of that nyl nat my bane be, Thanne shal no mete or drynke come in me Til I my soule out of my breste vnshethe, And thus my seluen wol I don to dethe. "And Troilus, my clothes euerychon Shul blake ben in tokennyng, herte swete,

Prudence, alias, oon of thyne eyen thre 745 Me lakked alwey er that I come here: On tyme y-passed wei remembred me,

I woot ek wei, but certeyn, men shal fynde worthi folk with-inne Troie town, konnyng and as perfit and as kynde, As ben bitwixen Orkades and lode. The whos myn herte al was til that he deyde; And other loue, as help me now Pallas, Ther in myn herte nys ne neuere was - that I sholde of any Grek han routhe, It sholde be 30ure seluen, by my trouthe. "I say nat therfore that I wol 30w loue, say nat nay, but in conclusioun, I mene wei, by god that sit aboue." And ther-with-al she caste hire eyen down,

ffor sorwe of which, whan he it gan byholde, And for despit, out of his slep he breyde, And loude he cride on Pandarus & seyde, 1245 I nam but ded; ther nys non other bote. "My lady bryght, Criseyde, hath me bytrayed,

brother deere, thow a soth of this desirest knowe, Thow most a fewe of olde stories heere, 1460 To purpos how that fortune ouerthrowe Hath lordes olde, thorugh which with-inne a throwe Thow wei this boor shalt knowe, and of what kynde

(Bloomington, 1974). Christi College Cambridge MS 61. Daretis Phrygii /lias (in) Introduction by M. B. Parkes and E. Salter Briefe und Werke, ed. L. Gompf (Leyden, (Cambridge, D. S. Brewer; 1977). 1970). See also The Iliad of Dares Phrygius, tr. Geoffrey Chaucer: The Poetical Works. A G. Roberts (Cape Town, 1970). Facsimile Reference A Facsimile. Introduction by R. Beadle and J. Griffiths (Cambridge, Boydell & Brewer; 1983). and ROBBINS, H. The Index Middle English Verse (New York, 1943). (iv) Sources and Analogues and HARTUNG, A. E. A Manual of the Writings in Middle English 1050-1500

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