Engineering Properties and Applications of Lead Alloys

until 1989. consumption decreased between followed steady growth annum level about million tons. Consumption United States followed trend. opening Communist production Western 1989. there supply situation. Communist exported 180,000 1993, import

calcium-tin)

frequently in nonbattery applications. 0.80-1.15% alloys are cable sheathing and antimony alloys are fabricate linings, pipe, anode chromium plating. alloys higher percentages antimony, such as castings hardness is

f---t---+-----jf-----,,-r 'iJOfXJf---t---+_yf---+---f------j bf---+--:M------j'---+---f-----I

where radius dispersion volume fraction dispersion [133]. typical energy-release function temperature formed metal shown Figure first. smaller. corresponds recovery process second. large, corresponds recrystallization process. Grain growth follows

v-f~----- addition of inhibited recrystallization. reduction temperature, the worked structure after recrystallization began after a recrystallization observed after days. high-purity (99.9999%) recrystallizes -59°C [144]. addition slows recrystallization

alloys given 99.9% reduction regard recrys- tallization months, respectively. behavior Pb-Te, Pb-Li, Pb-Na pronounced [84,145,146]. supersaturation avoided temperature, crystallization sets alloy. supersaturated alloys, precipitate formation could reduction strength. grain growth limiting grain different nealing temperatures different deformation strains could presented recrystallization diagrams. diagrams prepared

versus different stresses converged at showing Larsen-Miller parameter [192], which varies with stress given alloy. often assumed versus stress curves are established experimentally different alloys and extrapolation data.

[191,199]. these experiments, altered at constant constant temperature. curves which creep plotted against stress or against break after passing which rates steeply. addition, curves coarse-and fine-grained lead intersect stresses 25°C(jm{gl'oin ")-+---f

r----t---t----i--+-H4----l

81-----t----+----t----+----+---+----oA----+-------l 61----+--+----+--...l.-.,

Figure plastic strain steel (Courtesy extrusions and slip-band intrusions. fatigue cracks shown initiate intrusions mechanism producing slip-band extrusions and intrusions has suggested [235,236]. Based

duration vibration cycle exceeds fatigue strength depend frequency [240]. seems harder alloys, dependence fatigue strength on frequency is less marked. contrary, expressed units decreases known cases at constant amplitude increasing frequency vibration (Table [2,238]. frequency

t----+---+---t--------l

[61]. Table shows variation solubility sulfuric acid concentration and temperature [61]. sulfate soluble sulfuric acid solution water. intermediate concentrations, negligible. increase

Fixing absorbent directly material improve performance typically Fixing absorbent directly material other advantages because vides ready means joints where pipework penetrates. Sound Reduction Index where average sound pressure levels in source receiving room, respectively, specimen, and absorption receiving room (obtained Sabine equa- 0.161 where volume reverberation time). specifications, referred Sound Transmission Loss.

a.::. a.... ..... ..... ;...........

where increase weight, constant [23]. Figure shows weight increase 350°C, 400°C, 450°C [280]. volume oxide formed is greater volume metal which (Pilling Bedworth ratio 1.26), metal should occur [281]. growth oxide alloys takes place migration metal through the oxide layer reaction oxygen of parabolic oxidation kinetics suggests rate-controlling oxidation of melts diffusion process slag. linear depen-

wire-paste

important fonns basic valves, fittings, pumps, anodes, and vessels. Valves Different types valve fitting other lead-based equipment. obtained steel

alloys. [333] [325,326,332] variation

f----+---+-----.4---,. ,,----l --t----i

seams and vertical seams) and dependence highly specialized burners, whose ability judged today artistically shaped cupping seam, efforts mechanical movement increase in output (about gained mechanical guidance corresponding manual movement burner. However, equipment

0.0592 equilibrium potential varies with temperature approximately practice, voltage approximately given specific gravity theoretical storage ability weight assuming reactants activity estimated

HSOiaq) PbS0(s) Pb(s) HSOiaq) PbS0(s) presence impurities lower overpotential lution negative electrode accelerates self-discharge reaction negative electrode. impurities include transferred Sb-alloy-based positive grids. These discussed further in later section.

alloys becoming common. However, low-Sb alloys inferior castability. mechanical strength, and corrosion resistance under operating conditions. Arsenic addition increased hard- ening and reduced storage required after casting. Arsenic increased creep resistance. which was very beneficial cycling conditions. Storage Battery addition

referenced actually refers yield damper units tons. yield strength depends diameter damper, maximum yield strength of damper given where plastic's moment plastic's section modulus

alloys melting points, shrinkage on solidification; thus, they these requirements. metals lead-antimony-tin alloys. compositions metals diagram solidus temperatures these different alloys nearly coincide

Soldering major joining processes. Solder material material melting point parts being joined. molten solder between parts joined, completely wetting surfaces joined. Soldering process

consumption. screw section, continuously livered cable screw action press. power cables, sheath layers normally 2.5-3.5 thick. Segregation formation precipitates, their growth extruder screw surface, and their subsequent incorporation in cable sheath