ABSTRACT
Early modern seafaring was a dangerous occupation: with the uptick in long-distance oceanic travel during the Elizabethan era, there was a consequent increase in morbidity and mortality. The English East India Company (EIC) was a solicitous employer and laboured to develop effective and varied health care measures, although it struggled against an overwhelming foe. The EIC, a mercantile venture formed in 1600, was one of the chief beneficiaries of these lessons. Even the most gifted English medical professionals and experienced seafarers were mystified by how to battle the punishing climate, foreign ailments, and vitamin deficiency. Although seamen were more likely to capitulate to disease, accidents were also common: ships were dangerous working environments. Whether in naval or mercantile fleets, it was increasingly likely ships carried one or more surgeons on large-scale undertakings. The Company had many formidable foes that threatened its commercial success.
