ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses four distinct critical perspectives: Marxism, constructivism, feminism, and environmentalism. Constructivism, feminism, and environmentalism have liberal as well as critical variants, but we include them here for two reasons. First, the mainstream IPE theorists generally do not focus on constructivism, feminism, and environmentalism. Second, despite the lack of attention, critical perspectives raise important issues in regard to fairness and equity in the IPE, concerns that are becoming more prominent since the 2008 crisis and the rise of a new form of nationalist populism discussed in Chapter 1. The chapter devotes more attention to Marxist approaches because they encompass the largest group of critical theories, including traditional Marxism, dependency theory, world-systems theory, and Gramscian analysis.
