Introduction

At the dawn of the nineteenth century, after centuries of relative isolation and stagnation, several Muslim states suddenly found themselves face to face with European invaders. Through the contacts with Europe and Europeans, many new political, social and intellectual ideas entered Muslim societies, resulting in a rebirth of sorts across various fields, with the creation of new literary genres, the introduction of new sciences, and the emergence of political and social reform movements. This Muslim Awakening subsequently became known as al-Nahda (‘the Renaissance’), which was, initially at least, primarily associated with Egypt and the modernization projects of its ruler, Muhammad cAli (1805-1848).