ABSTRACT
Previously, the creation of war relocation centers has been ascribed to the angry
American populace searching for any way to strike back at Japan,1 as well as
detaining Japanese-Americans “temporarily prior to relocation out of the center
into civilian life.”2 For many years, even the suggestion that the Japanese-
American community presented a real security threat to the United States was met
with a wave of derision; one of the kinder books on this topic concluded that
General DeWitt’s evacuation order of 18 March 1942 based on “‘military
necessity’ was unjustified-but that the dereliction was one of folly, not of
knavery.”3 In fact, Japan’s intelligence efforts among the Japanese-American
population were extensive, as one recent author who has studied the MAGIC
code-breaking and the resulting intelligence has concluded. He argues that the
Japanese interned in the United States “were actually victims of the Japanese
For these interned to return home, however, it would be necessary to find a
solution to the Japanese insistence on reciprocity, both in terms of numbers and
social status of the evacuees. In the euphoria following the first exchange, there
were high hopes that a second exchange could take place immediately. On 3
August 1942, the Swiss Legation passed on the following message to Tokyo: “It
is expected that ‘Gripsholm’ would leave New York about September 1st with
1500 Japanese nationals on board and proceed to Lourenço-Marques for second
exchange. … Vessel would reach Lourenço-Marques on or about September 24th.
United States Government desires confirmation that Japanese Government is
