ABSTRACT
All actions and decisions of the government were made on royal authority. It was the king’s policies that were formulated and implemented, his peace that was maintained, his writs that ran, and his law that applied. All crimes were offences against him and his peace. A host of suitors petitioned him and thousands of warrants came to him for approval each year. His hands could not be tied. Yet much was delegated. Some matters were decided in council and others by heads of departments, who presented to lesser ecclesiastical livings, issued protections, appointed customs officers and leased estates. The household chamberlain ‘presenteth, appointeth and dischargeth’ and punished staff as ‘chief head of rulers in the king’s chamber’, whilst the ‘secondary estate and rule under the king of all the excellent household is wholly committed [to the steward] to be ruled and guided by his reason’.1 The senior officers of the palatinate of Chester, duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster filled junior offices, made grants and leased property, in short managed the king’s estates, exercised his patronage and wielded his authority.2 No king could know of many practical decisions made by his government departments, courts of law and estate officials. For most people, most of the time, it was the king’s officials – his clerks – who were the public face of monarchy. Their conduct was identified with their master – any malpractice actually detracted from the king’s own worship. His esteem conferred status on them – generally above their natural rank: it was the king himself who handed the chamberlain and steward their staffs of office and tendered their oaths.3 It was his authority that they exercised and that guaranteed them respect. Only he could intervene, override, pardon or mitigate their actions.
