ABSTRACT
A Abyssinian War see ITALO-ABYSSINIAN WAR. Acerbo law Italian electoral law, passed in 1923. Under the law, any party gaining one quarter of the vote, and more votes than any of its rivals, would automatically receive two thirds of the seats in the Assembly. While it was presented by MUSSOLINI as a way of halting the series of weak coalition governments, and was supported by the Liberals on those terms, the law helped to strengthen the Fascist government in its early stages. See also FASCISM. Action Franc;aise French political movement. Action Franr,:aise was founded by the poet and journalist Charles Maurras in 1899 in the wake of the DREYFUS AFFAIR as an anti-republican and anti-semitic (see ANTI-SEMITISM) movement which promoted NATIONALISM, militarism, and a restoration of the monarchy. From 1908, Maurras edited L'Action Franr,:aise as a daily newspaper. The movement had some middle-class appeal, but was never populist and never gained much influence in parliament. In the inter-war period, it moved close to FASCISM, and it was proscribed in 1936, although the newspaper continued publication. The movement reemerged during the SECOND WORLD WAR, giving its support to the VICHY government and promoting collaboration with the German occupation. The movement and its newspaper were banned in 1944 after the allied victory in France (see NORMANDY CAMPAIGN), and Maurras was given a life term of imprisonment. Adenauer, Konrad (1876-1967) German politician. A lawyer from Cologne, Adenauer first rose to prominence as the city's Centre party mayor in 1917. He achieved higher office in 1920 when he became President of the Prussian State Council. He lost both positions in 1933 when the Nazis removed him, and was imprisoned twice during the THIRD REICH. He re-entered politics after the SECOND WORLD WAR with US backing, and helped to form a new party, the Christian Democratic Un-
ion (CDU). He was influential in the framing of the Basic Law in 1948, and was elected as the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in 1949, a position he retained in elections in 1953, 1957, and 1961. From 1951 to 1955, he also served as Foreign Minister. Adenauer played a significant role in the FRG's rehabilitation after 1945: his achievements here included the promotion of Franco-German relations, the entry of the FRG to NATO in 1955 and to the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY in 1957, and the 1952 Restitution Agreement with Israel. See FINAL SOLUTION. Adrianople, treaty of (September 1829) Peace treaty between Russia and the OTTOMAN EMPIRE that ended the conflict that had started in 1828 as part of the GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. The treaty established Greece as an autonomous state; Russia gained navigation rights to the Black Sea Straits; Moldavia and Wallachia were established as autonomous states under Russian protection; and the Ottoman empire ceded territories in Armenia, Georgia, and on the Danube to Russia. Aix-Ia-Chappelle, Congress of (September-November 1818) First of the post-1815 meetings under the CONGRESS SYSTEM. The Congress was called to deal primarily with France and wind up the work of the conference of ambassadors which had managed the occupation (see PARIS, TREATY OF 1815). The Congress agreed to end the occupation in November 1818, as the French government had repaid the indemnity set at Paris, and France was duly admitted to the Congress System on an equal footing to the QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE powers, thereby creating the Quintuple Alliance. In addition, ALEXANDER I proposed the formation of a common army, and called for the Alliance to give military support to any monarch facing a revolution: he was mainly thinking of the Spanish colonial revolts, but was also attempting to set the Alliance up as a conservative enforcer. These moves were resisted by Viscount Castlereagh, the UK's representative, and by METTERNICH. Aix-Ia-Chappelle also saw the secret renewal of the Quadruple Alliance on its
original lines as a defender of the treaty of Paris of 1815. Alexander I (1777-1825) ROMANOV Tsar of Russia, 1801-25. Alexander I succeeded his murdered father, Paul, in 180l. Having had a relatively liberal education, he began his reign with the promise of some significant reforms: and, under the influence of his adviser Count Speranski, he introduced some limited modernisation to Russian society and politics. This included the establishment of state schools and some new universities, some initiatives for local and regional representation, and the limitation of both censorship and torture. However, the impact of these changes was limited, and in the latter part of his reign he became far more repressive. This reaction was seen most clearly with the establishment of the military colonies. Alexander's foreign policy involved a number of territorial gains, including Finland, Bessarabia and parts of the Caucasus, and he was a leading figure in the diplomatic and military aspects of the NAPOLEONIC WARS and their aftermath in the CONGRESS SYSTEM, and in the HOLY ALLIANCE with Prussia and Austria from 1815. His death in 1825 gave rise to a succession crisis, and provided the opportunity for some Russian liberals to stage the DECEMBRIST CONSPIRACY. He was succeeded by his brother, NICHOLAS I. Alexander 11 (1818-81) ROMANOV Tsar of Russia, 1855-8l. Alexander II succeeded his father NICHOLAS I during the CRIMEAN WAR. His reputation as a reforming monarch was earned through his attempts to modernise Russian politics and society after this military defeat. In the 1860s and 1870s, he oversaw a number of reforms, including, most famously, the limited EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS in 186l. Other steps included reform of central and local government, the establishment of a legal code, expansion of the education system, the introduction of conscription, and the encouragement of industrialisation. Liberal reforms were also introduced in Finland and the Kingdom of Poland, although the POLISH REVOLUTION of 1863 led to a more repressive rule (see also IMPERIALISM). Russia's main foreign successes under Alexander II were in cen-
tral Asia and in the Balkans, including a number of moves designed to increase the Russian empire and its influence, and to reduce the influence of Turkey (see RUSSOTURKISH WAR). In this process, PANSLAVISM played a part. The later years of his reign saw a number of tensions emerge as Russia's new industrial cities grew rapidly and the emancipation of the serfs created problems in the agricultural economy. In this context, a number of oppositional movements grew on the left and the right, and Alexander followed a more repressive line. This began to change in 1880 as a way of diluting the opposition, and by early 1881 he accepted the idea of a constitution. However, he was assassinated by members of the People's Will, a populist group, before this could be followed through (see POPULISM). He was succeeded by his son, ALEXANDER III. Alexander III (1845-94) ROMANOV Tsar of Russia, 1881-94. Alexander III succeeded his assassinated father ALEXANDER II, and much of his reign was characterised by a reaction to the limited LIBERALISM that his father had overseen. Influenced by conservative advisers, he immediately introduced a range of repressive measures designed to limit the opportunities for oppositional views to be discussed. These included greater censorship, state control of the universities, and increased police powers. He also reduced the rights of the non-Russian nationalities within the empire through Russification policies in language, law and administration, and promoted ANTI-SEMITISM (see also IMPERIALISM). His economic policies encouraged industrialisation and urban growth but failed to prevent agricultural decline, despite some efforts to improve peasants' income through reducing the redemption repayments established by his father's EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS. This broadly repressive regime provided the context for the growth of a significant underground opposition, which became more evident during his son NICHOLAS n's reign from 1894 to 1917 (see RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1905, RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS 1917). Under Alexander, and in response to changes in German policy, Russia moved closer to France, culminating in the formation of
the FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE in 1894 for mutual support in case of war with Germany. He was succeeded by his son, NICHOLAS II. Alfonso XIII (1886-1941) King of Spain, 1886-1931. Alfonso XIII succeeded his father Alfonso XII posthumously, with his mother, Archduchess Maria Cristina, ruling as regent until 1902. He was unable to maintain the role of constitutional monarch established by his father, preferring instead to by-pass parliament and work by intrigue with military figures. His reign saw frequent expressions of discontent, particularly over Spanish IMPERIALISM, and he survived five assassination attempts. He was implicated in the military coup of 1923 that brought PRIMO DE RIVERA to power, and he worked with the dictator until the latter's resignation in 1930. Alfonso XIII left Spain in 1931 after republican victories in local elections, but refused to abdicate. His departure heralded the establishment of the Second Republic. He lived in exile in Italy, and carried on working with monarchist politicians and soldiers throughout the 1930s. However, he was not called back to Spain when the Republic was defeated by nationalist rebels in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. He abdicated in favour of his son, Don Juan, in 1940, and died in Rome the following year. Alma, battle of (September 1854) see CRIMEAN WAR. Altenkirchen, battle of (September 1796) see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. Amiens, treaty of (March 1802) Peace treaty between France and the UK during the NAPOLEONIC WARS. The treaty brought peace between the two countries, following on from the withdrawal of Russia from the Coalition and the French defeat of Austria (see treaty of LUNEVILLE). By the treaty, the UK was allowed to keep its colonial acquisitions of Ceylon and Trinidad, but returned other colonies to France, the Netherlands, and Spain (see also IMPERIALISM). France withdrew its forces from the Papal States and Naples, and returned territory to Portugal and Turkey, while the Ionian islands were established as a republic and Malta was returned to the Knights of St John. The
treaty thus settled a number of territorial issues that had been contested by the British and the French during the latter stages of the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS as well as the early stages of the Napoleonic Wars, although it was seen by both sides as a temporary respite from fighting rather than a solution. The treaty collapsed in 1803. anarchism Umbrella term for a number of strands of political ideology which share common ground in the notion that government and authority are undesirable, and obstruct human development. The concept developed during the seventeenth century as a way of describing the belief that people could live well without leaders, but became more focused on some of the ideas of individual liberty that were disseminated during and after the FRENCH REVOLUTION. From the midnineteenth century, anarchism developed into various forms. One form, based on the idea that people could organise on small, local scales, without any need for authority, was developed in France by PROUDHON: this shared some features with LIBERALISM, and later fed into SYNDICALISM. Another form had more in common with COMMUNISM and SOCIALISM, developed in the Russian tradition by BAKUNIN. It was marginalised by mainstream communist thought after Bakunin split with MARX and the FIRST INTERNATIONAL in 1872 over the role of political parties. The Russian tradition was also focused on the more utopian ideas of Peter Kropotkin and Lev Tolstoy. From the 1870s, a number of revolutionary organisations committed to political violence represented another form of anarchism: and the publicity created by high-profile anarchist assassinations, such as those of President Sadi Carnot of France in 1894, and King Umberto of Italy in 1900, forged a popular link between anarchism and terrorism. Anarchists in France, Italy and Spain developed the most formal identities, particularly around the time of the FIRST WORLD WAR and its aftermath, with trade union links adding to their significance. In Spain, anarchists joined one of the coalition governments of the SPANISH CIVIL WAR period. However, the USSR's
hard line against deviation ensured that the anarchist tradition became marginalised on the left. On the right, anarchism has shared some common ground with CONSERVATISM, particularly on the issue of individual liberty, although mainstream European conservatism has rejected this. Anarchism enjoyed something of a revival in some radical student and intellectual circles in the 1960s and 1970s, with some violent revolutionary groups, such as the Red Army Faction, basing their terrorist activities on anarchist ideas. Andrassy, Julius (1823-90) Hungarian and Austro-Hungarian politician. A trained lawyer, Andrassy was elected to the Hungarian Diet in 1847, where he supported KOSSUTH and the Hungarian nationalist movement in the 1848 revolution (see REVOLUTIONS OF 1848). After the revolution's failure, he lived in exile, and was condemned to death in his absence. He returned to Hungary after an amnesty in 1857, and re-entered politics. He was influential in the establishment of the Ausgleich of 1867, and was appointed as the first Hungarian Prime Minister that year, a post he held until 1871. Through this post, and through his role as Foreign Minister for Austria-Hungary from 1871 until 1879, he consistently worked for the promotion of Hungarian influence and identity, and for the limitation of Russian influence in the Balkans (see PANSLAVISM). He played a leading role at the BERLIN CONGRESS in 1878, helping to secure Bosnia-Herzogovina from Russia, and helped to establish the DUAL ALLIANCE with Germany in 1879 on grounds favourable to Austria-Hungary. He resigned in 1879. Andropov, Yuri (1914-84) Soviet politician. Andropov joined the Communist party in 1939, and fought as a partisan in the SECOND WORLD WAR (see also RESISTANCE). He advanced within the party after the war, gaining his first major role in 1957 when KHRUSHCHEV appointed him Soviet Ambassador to Hungary, a position he held until 1962. Here, and in his role of coordinating the USSR's relations with other communist countries, he helped to enforce Soviet centrality (see also COLD WAR, IMPERIALISM). He headed the KGB from 1967 until 1982. On BREZH-
NEV'S death in 1982, Andropov became effective ruler of the USSR, his position confirmed in 1983 with his appointment as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet. During his brief time in office, he began to address the inefficiencies that were becoming apparent in the USSR's polity and economy, although he died in office before achieving much. This process was taken up more fully by GORBACHEV. Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935) Bilateral agreement between Germany and the UK on the relative sizes of their naval forces. Germany was allowed to develop a navy 35 per cent the size of the Royal Navy, and to have parity in its submarine fleet. The agreement effectively recognised the redundancy of the relevant arms limitation clauses of the treaty of VERSAILLES, and caused a rift in the STRESA FRONT. For Germany, the agreement was negotiated through the RIBBENTROP Bureau rather than the Foreign Office, and was thus an example of the Nazi government's practice of by-passing official state channels. Anglo-Russian Entente see TRIPLE ENTENTE. Anschluss (German: 'union') The idea and practice of political union between Austria and Germany. With its roots in the common language and some shared history, the mid-nineteenth century idea of an Anschluss for a 'greater Germany' became viable when the HABSBURG empire collapsed in 1918, at the end of the FIRST WORLD WAR However, such a union was specifically barred by the treaties of VERSAILLES and ST GERMAIN. It remained an attractive option to many Austrians and Germans in the following years, and was one of the Nazi party's declared aims (see NAZISM). In 1931, the two countries' governments tried unsuccessfully to establish a customs union: this was blocked by opposition from France and the LITTLE ENTENTE. In 1934, the German government attempted to achieve a union through an Austrian Nazi coup in Vienna. This failed, despite the murder of the Austrian Chancellor DOLLFUSS, when the Italian government threatened to intervene on Austria's behalf. In 1937, MUSSOLINI changed his anti-Anschluss pol-
icy: and the following year, Germany successfully managed the Anschluss. After pressure from Berlin to admit Nazis to his government, Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg resigned, and Arthur SeyssInquart, the Austrian Nazi leader, duly invited the Germans into Austria to maintain order. This peaceful invasion took place in March 1938: and while the subsequent plebiscite results of 99.75 per cent in favour of Anschluss were dubious, the union was welcomed by many Austrians. It provided Germany with economic, manpower, and strategic advantages, weakened Czechoslovakia, and effectively destroyed the LITTLE ENTENTE. See also APPEASEMENT. Anti-Comintern Pact see AXIS. anti-semitism Racial and political ideology based on antipathy towards Jews. Jews had historically been persecuted and discriminated against in most European countries with Christian establishments before the nineteenth century, a tradition justified variously on religious, cultural and economic grounds. In the late nineteenth century, influenced by NATIONALISM and by developments in science (especially those on evolution associated with Darwin), more rationalised forms of anti-semitism emerged, particularly in France, Germany and Russia. Under this, Jews were defined in predominantly racial terms - that is, 'blood' rather than culture or religion was seen as their defining characteristic - and were accused of diluting and corrupting non-Jewish races. The emergence of these ideas was strongly linked both to economic depression, in which the Jews were blamed as scapegoats, and to the growing belief after ITALIAN UNIFICATION and GERMAN UNIFICATION that the nation state was the ideal form of political organisation: as there was no Jewish nation state, Jews were easy to characterise as alien.
