ABSTRACT
values. Sheng Zhong compares and contrasts Shanghai’s industrial restructuring and creative city-making with Friedmann’s social learning planning paradigm. While social learning in the Western tradition is more about knowledge production, social learning in China as a kind of ‘survival-based pragmatism’ means that learners, largely elites, may not start out to be conscious knowledge seekers. And China’s social learning experiments also prove that social learning is possible even in hierarchical and non-democratic situations. Ng considers the qualities of Chinese culture in relation to Friedmann’s
