ABSTRACT
Forms of concrete have been used as a durable building material at least since Roman times, and concrete structures of Roman origin can still be seen in
many parts of Europe today. As early as the nineteenth century it was realised that, although normally a very durable material, concrete could deteriorate, with frost and seawater being considered the principal agents causing deterioration of concrete structures. Cases of concrete failure that could not be attributed to one or other of these causes were left unexplained.
