ABSTRACT
Emerged from the citizen revolts against urban renewal projects in the 1950s and 1960s, public participation has become a common practice in many North American cities today. Ballots, public hearings, and citizen committees are now routine ways for soliciting public input and consent. Design workshops, games, and surveys provide additional ways for involving citizens and communities in the making of place (Hou, 2011). In neighborhoods and university campuses from coast to coast, community design centers have emerged as a way for professionals and educators to assist distressed communities in need of outside help (Curry, 2004). These practices have built upon and resulted in a growing literature on participatory planning and design that deals with specific techniques and methods to engage the public (see Sanoff, 1979, 2000; Hester, 1984, 1990). Recently, growing interest in humanitarian design and public interest design further embodies the principles of participation and social justice.
