ABSTRACT
Later analysis showed that the ®asco was due to faulty decisionmaking by Kennedy and his advisors. Janis (1972, 1982) analyzed the Bay of Pigs invasion as an example of groupthink (see Chapter 7 for a more elaborate discussion). Janis was interested in the question of why a group of smart people, such as Kennedy and his advisors, could make such a bad decision. He reasoned that it was due to certain group processes, and coined the term `` groupthink'': `` A mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action'' (Janis, 1972, p. 9). The essence of groupthink lies in excessive concurrence-seeking: Group members try to maintain consensus and group harmony, and refrain from criticism or counter-argumentation against the alternative that is favored by the group. Because group members do not critically appraise the alternatives, and everyone appears to agree with the proposed decision, they run the risk of convincing themselves to adopt a course of action that normally would be perceived as inadequate or even dangerous.
