Cultural psychology of the self: A renewed look at independence and interdependence

Cultural variation of the self has become a major topic of research in recent years (e.g., Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, & Nisbett, 1998; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989). This literature has focused on European-Americans and East Asians, and presented a case that European-Americans are independent and East Asians are interdependent. Thus, it has been suggested that European-Americans tend to believe that they are unique, bounded, and separate from context. Further, these individuals are motivated to influence their surroundings and to be a source of action. In contrast, East Asians tend to believe that they are contextual, relational, and embedded in context. Further, these individuals are motivated to fit in and adjust to their surroundings.