ABSTRACT
Graber (1989) defined crises as “natural or manmade events that pose an immediate and serious threat to the lives and property or to the peace of mind of many” (p. 305).1 Crises emerge suddenly and arise from attacks on political leaders, such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy (1963) and the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan (1981); from attacks by and threats from external forces, such as the Yom Kippur War (1973), the hostage situation in Iran (1979 to 1981), and the Persian Gulf War (1991); from natural disasters such as the eruption of Mount St. Helens (1980), the San Francisco earthquake (1989), and hurricane Andrew (1992); from technical disasters such as the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island (1979) and Chernobyl (1986), the Challenger space shuttle explosion (1986), and airline accidents, such as the crash of TWA flight 800 in 1996; from internal conflicts such as the National Guard shooting of nine students at Kent State (1970) and the Los Angeles riots following the first Rodney King verdict (1992); and from terrorist activity, such as the bombings at the World Trade Center (1993) and the Oklahoma Federal Building (1995). Crises affect large numbers of people and are marked by sudden onset, uncertainty, and lack of control, emotional reactions, and threats to lives and property.
