ABSTRACT
The central question this chapter is intended to answer is: “What other options are available, beyond traditional standardized tests, or curriculum standards consisting of naïve checklists of low-level facts and skills, to operationally define educational goals in ways that provide direction for both instruction and accountability?” Suggestions for alternatives will be drawn from both the physical and social sciences, as well as from common experiences in business, engineering, and other areas where science is applied.
