ABSTRACT
The persecution of Buddhism in 838 marked a great watershed in the history of Tibet, one which may well turn out to be even more divisive than the events of the last forty years. It heralded a dark age which was to endure for over a century until the Buddhist restoration of 953, and which effectively ended the powerful Yarlung dynasty in 869. In retrospect, historians have considered this period to demarcate decisively the earlier phase (snga'-dar) and the later phase (phyi-dar) of Buddhist propagation in Tibet.1 Those who adhered to the transmissions and teachings introduced during the earlier phase became known as the rNyingma-pa, in contrast to the proponents of the various new translation schools, who were known as gSar-mapa. However, the hardening of attitudes during the tenth and eleventh centuries, which is clearly evident in the rNying-ma writings of Rong-zom Choskyi bZang-po, as well as in the ordinances of Lha bLa-ma Yeshes ’od, and in the polemical broadsides of ’Gos-khug-pa Lhas-btsas and ’Bri-gung dPal-’dzin, more accurately reflects certain differences between the Indian Vajrayāna Buddhism of the seventh/eighth centuries and that of the tenth/eleventh centuries.2 The texts transmitted during the earlier period, notably the tantras of Mahāyoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga, are referred to as the “ancient translations” (snga'-'gyur) when contrasted with the “later translations” (phyi-'gyur) of Anuttara Yogatantra. As distinct genres of Buddhist literature, these texts undoubtedly exhibit differences in terminology, style, versification, and
formation, with the former in many cases appearing to conform iconographically to even earlier developments within the sūtra and tantra traditions of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism and the latter appearing to incorporates more non-Buddhist imagery.3
