Italy

In contrast to the countries we have hitherto studied, Italy did not form one state; she was, in the famous epigram, only a "geographical expression." Not only did the numerous political units of which she was composed fail to unite themselves even in the loose bonds of a federation, but they were divided by fierce rivalries, which even in the sixteenth century sometimes ended in bloodshed. A sort of peace was at this period imposed by foreign intervention alone, for it was inevitable that a country so divided against itself should serve as a battlefield for the strong centralised monarchies which surrounded it, and that so rich and fair a domain should become theif disputed prey. No power, however, succeeded in conquering the whole peninsula, and the Spanish influence, which was almost without rival for a century and a half, ¹ was later counterbalanced by that of Austria. ² It is therefore within the narrow limits of each little state that we must follow the thread of economic and social evolution. But we must be prepared to notice, during this series of rapid sketches, whether there were not wider factors shaping these diverse destinies to the same end.