ABSTRACT
Deception can be found in any human activity which involves competition over scarce resources or any other desired benefits that are limited in supply. Whenever and wherever a situation exists — in business, economic life, politics on all levels, love — through which an advantage can be gained by cheating, there will always be individuals or groups who will resort to it. Although in civilian affairs, cheating, deception, or fraud are usually punishable by law or by informal sanctions (such as the loss of credibility or reputation in certain circles) this not the case in war nor, to a lesser extent in international politics, which have their own norms and morality (i.e. raison d'etat). Deception in international politics (not to be discussed in this article) and more frequently in war is rewarded by greater achievements and success. While extremely helpful in war, deception has frequently failed, or failed to achieve its intended objectives, and on occasions has even proved to be counterproductive. Despite this word of caution, deception must be seen as an accepted and integral part of any rational conduct of war. In the words of Sun Tzu, 'All warfare is based on deception'.5
