ABSTRACT
THE TAKING OF AI4 (Fig. 1) Deception can be defined as a purposeful attempt by the deceiver to manipulate the perceptions of the target's decision makers in order to gain a competitive advantage. Whenever and wherever a situation exists - be it in the conduct of business, economic life, politics, or love - through which cheating might provide the needed advantage, there are always individuals or groups prepared to resort to it. Although cheating, deception and fraud are commonly punishable by law or discouraged by informal sanctions when they occur in civilian affairs, this is obviously not the case in war or, to a lesser extent, in international politics, which are subject to their own norms of behavior and morality (i.e., raison d'etat). Deception in international politics (not to be discussed here) and more frequently in war is rewarded by greater achievements and success; yet while it is potentially very helpful in the conduct of war, deception has often failed, or failed to achieve the intended objectives, and on occasion has even proved to be counterproductive. Despite this note of caution, deception must be seen as an accepted and integral part of every military commander's repertoire. In the words of Sun Tzu, 'All warfare is based on deception'.5
