ABSTRACT
Smallholder farming systems are diverse, spatially heterogeneous and dynamic. They operate in uncertain and changing environments to which they need to adapt constantly. Resources and investments are often limited, and their strategic allocation in space and time has an impact on system attributes such as efficiency, vulnerability and resilience. Any technological strategy aiming to improve system performance and sustainability through ecological intensification should be designed considering the integrated nature of smallholder farming systems. This is particularly the case for mixed crop–livestock farming systems, which differ in terms of intensity and integration across the agro-ecological gradients of East and Central Africa.
