The Book-Trade Under the Caliphate

WHEN the Arabs made their conquests and established their Empire they were far too much occupied with military affairs and administrative measures to have either the time or the inclination for the peaceful pursuit of letters. Nor had they, as a nation, shown, in the past, any serious literary or studious tastes. True, they achieved considerable distinction in poetry; but there, in that sphere alone, their literary glory began and ended. With Islam religion became, for the time being, their exclusive passion. It overshadowed every other interest—local, tribal, individual. Allah and his Prophet divided their love and homage. For them, then, the Qur’an—the Book of God—was the only book needed. It was the revelation of God, the quintessence of all wisdom. They loved, revered, treasured, studied, copied this book. It was transcribed on well-prepared animal skins, parchment, and leather which came from the factories of South Arabia and was distinguished by smoothness and excellence of quality. ¹ This satisfied all their literary yearnings. There was no need for paper then; for they had neither a literature to set down in writing, nor an elaborate system of government calling for ample stationery to meet its requirements. But though the Arabs themselves were little advanced in civilization, the countries they conquered were countries with a past, a tradition, a rich civilization. Thus, on the conquest of Egypt, the Arabs found a highly-developed industry there, in the preparation of papyrus-plant for writing purposes. This industry was of a very remote antiquity, and, under Arab rule, received a great impetus; for the Muslim Government imposed no taxes on native crafts and manufactures. Its chief seat was at Bura—a small sea-coast town in the Deltaic district of Damietta. ² The Arabs encouraged this industry. They even retained the old name of the plant, and called it “Fafir”—while they called the stuff prepared from it “Kirtas”. ¹ From here mainly did the Bzyantine Government receive its supply of writing-material, with the result that immense became the export of papyrus from Egypt to Byzantine. The price was paid in ready money. ² Apart from the papyrus it seems that in Egypt a new method of manufacturing paper was early discovered. An old Arab writer tells us that the Caliph Mutasim, who collected, in his newly-built residence, Samarra, artisans from all parts of the Empire, summoned also paper - manufacturers from Egypt. As papyrus did not grow at Samarra, paper could only be manufactured there from other materials, and these were cotton or linen. How did this new method originate? Accurate information fails us, but one explanation suggests itself to us. When the stock of papyrus became insufficient they resorted to the practice of blending genuine papyrus with cotton. This probably led, in course of time, to the discovery of the manufacture of paper from cotton pure and simple. Up to the third century of the A.H. parchment, or Egyptian papyrus, was used in all government offices. At the time of Amin and Mamun parchment was in general use. In the war between the two brothers the official documents, written on parchment, were looted and carried away. They were subsequently washed clean and were sold as writing materials. It is stated that this supply of parchment for long satisfied the popular demand for writing materials. ³ During the period from the beginning of the third to the middle of the fourth century a great change took place. They not only began to import Chinese paper, which always remained very expensive, but there arose an indigenous paper factory in North Arabia, Tehama. Here paper was manufactured from cotton. ⁴ Ibn Khaldun tells us that in Baghdad itself a paper factory was established at the instance of the Wazir Fadhl Ibn Yahya. ⁵ In the extreme north-eastern province of the Caliphate an enterprising Chinaman first introduced the art of manufacturing paper from flax. In the Kitabul Fihrist—which comes to us from the second half of the fourth century of the A.H. —we find a detailed account of the different kinds of paper prepared from flax. This industry attained its zenith in Samarqand. In its trade the export of paper filled the first place. With the rise of national literature, and with advancing civilization, the need for paper grew more and more. Paper factories arose all over the Muslim Empire. From Egypt the Muslims conquered the whole of the North African coast. Nor even there did their victorious march stop. Forward and forward they went. They conquered Spain. They subjugated Sicily. Both in Spain and in Sicily they introduced the art of manufacturing paper, and in both these countries this industry attained a signal success. ¹ Far-famed in the 12th century were the different kinds of paper manufactured at Xativa. While the western countries of Europe had their supply of paper from Xativa, the eastern had theirs from the Levant. In the 11th and 12th centuries paper of Saracenic manufacture displaced the old parchment in Europe. In A.D. 1224 Emperor Fredrick II forbade the use of cottonwool paper in certain official documents because of its wretched quality. But the question of price made this prohibition ineffective. In the second half of the 13th century paper made of linen makes its first appearance in Europe. To produce paper of cheap quality they mixed up cotton-wool paper with linen ingredients. Possibly this was an invention of the Moors, but nothing can be stated with certainty. From the point of view of civilization, the manufacture of paper, in increasing abundance, and the gradual cheapening of its price, are matters of momentous importance. Books written on parchment or papyrus were so expensive that they were beyond the reach of the average man. The Arabs produced cheaper paper, and with it supplied not only the Eastern but also the Western markets. Thus, learning ceased to be the monopoly of a caste, the privilege of the rich. It became accessible to all. It opened up fresh vistas, struck new veins of thought, broke off the fetters forged by ignorance and fanaticism; it widened the horizon of man. It inaugurated a new age of unwearying activity, of boundless hope.