ABSTRACT
Polish has 12 commonly used particles which, when used with other words, whether attached to them or not, perform the important functions defined below. The mnemonic Li/czy no/że niech/by nie (He is counting the knives, and woe betide him if not) contains all the common particles except a, ci, to, the indefinite particle ś and the wish particle oby. Where indicated that a particle also functions as a conjunction see 11 Conjunctions.
