ABSTRACT
European Jewish life in the eighteenth century was similar to that in medieval times. Although numerous changes had taken place in the early modern period, society and law were based on a hierarchy of privileges. Most monarchs ruled by divine right, and the nobility was exempt from direct taxation and enjoyed special rights for high office. In addition, the established Church was granted opportunities denied to other faiths, and guilds were frequently closed to outsiders. In many countries the peasantry owed the landowning nobility feudal dues and fees. Within this milieu Jews were denied numerous freedoms.
