The Practice, Perception and Experience of Byzantine Fortification*

Fortifications defined the Byzantine landscape: they enclosed cities, towns and monasteries, guarded passages and communication routes, and protected the socio-economic infrastructure of the Byzantine countryside.¹ This chapter will address aspects of the practice, the use and the perception of fortifications during the middle and late Byzantine periods following the gradual transformation of cities in the late sixth century, which altered the urban experience in Byzantium.² Works of military architecture from this period reflect the needs of societies contending with intense military conflict, socio-political transition and insecurity.³ Byzantines protected their cities, towns and hinterlands through an arduous and expensive policy of reusing, maintaining and adapting towers, walls and outposts. Masons and their patrons drew from the rich traditions of late antiquity and learned from their opponents. They were able to utilize and improve existing works and to make the most of the amassed expertise gained through time. During the middle Byzantine period military architecture played a central role in efforts to reorganize the empire and to revive urban life. Following the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the political landscape of Byzantium became increasingly fragmented and fortifications were the primary means to protect urban life.