ABSTRACT
The history of independent Africa is characterized by high levels of conflict that have ranged from low-intensity ethno-religious and political conflicts to protracted civil wars and from conventional inter-state conflicts to regional conflicts. In this process millions of Africans have been killed, of which an estimated 90% were civilian non-combatants. Apart from the large-scale loss of human life and associated human rights abuses, conflict has also led to the reversal of decades of development efforts, the disruption of livelihoods, the destruction of infrastructure, the loss of investment opportunities, the diversion of resources from social programmes to the military, increased debt and massive internal displacement of people who are uprooted and forced to become refugees. The causes of conflict in Africa are numerous and include the colonial legacy, the weak post-colonial African state, coups d’e´tat, military intervention in political processes, regional and international political and economic systems, fundamental social cleavages (e.g. ethnic, religious and regional), weak economies, competition over scarce resources, arbitrary and repressive governance, political intolerance and the refusal of political elites to co-operate and compromise. What follows is a survey of conflicts in independent Africa that focuses on some of the main conflicts fought on the continent since the about the 1950s and on attempts at making and keeping the peace in Africa.
