ABSTRACT
The ‘diffusion’ of scientific knowledge described in the previous chapter as a rule avoided religion and politics and touched these questions only in so far as they were related to general philosophical problems. The freemasons, who both individually and as a society actively promoted ‘useful arts and sciences’, even enjoined their members to avoid religious and political controversy. Yet political and religious discussions could not be avoided in the eighteenth century. The controversy between Protestantism and Catholicism was rather one-sided, as the Catholics were rendered mute by legislation. In the absence of an open opposition the Protestant attacks on ‘popery’ gradually died down and did not occupy the limelight of the scene. But the Protestant Dissenters were very far from being mute and their attacks on the Anglican monopoly established by law were openly preached from Dissenting pulpits and then published in the form of pamphlets or public petitions. The freedom of discussion of religious dogmas afforded by most of the famous Dissenting Academies led to an open defence of heterodox opinions which usually crossed the denominational divisions and involved the Anglicans as well. The so-called Armi-nian’ and Arian’ heresies especially were discussed throughout the century by all denominations. Hundreds of sermons and pamphlets were devoted to these questions and many leading divines and even laymen took an active part in the controversy. We have seen that William Whiston devoted most of his publications to religious problems and was even deprived of his Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge for Arian’ heresy. Both orthodoxy and heterodoxy championed by men of ability and sound learning inevitably led to a critical appreciation of the Scriptures and to the study of comparative religion. Sermons and short pamphlets were inadequate for that purpose and were supplemented by voluminous publications, by public lectures and open discussions in coffee houses, clubs and societies. The questions of freedom of opinion and the legal monopoly of the Church of England were closely connected with political tolerance and constitutional reform. Thus both religion and politics became the subjects of public lectures and open discussions. The necessity of factual knowledge in both subjects resulted in the publication of dictionaries or encyclopedias devoted to them. The first was published by Daniel Defoe in 1704 under the title A Dictionary of all Religions, republished in 1723. In 1756 a more extensive Bibliotheca Historica-Sacra, or Historical Dictionary of all Religions from the Creation of the World to the present time appeared. In 1775 the two volumes of the Political Dictionary, or a Summary of Political Knowledge were published. The polemics assumed a more academic aspect and theologians of both sides delivered systematic courses of lectures on religion from a comparative and philosophical point of view. The most systematic scheme of regular annual courses on religion in connection with science dates to the seventeenth century and was associated with the movement of propagatio fidei per scientia started by Comenius and his circle. We mentioned before that the Hon. Robert Boyle combined his interest in scientific discovery with the missionary zeal of a Christian. By his will in 1691 he founded and endowed with £50 a year the ‘Boyle Lectures’ for the defence of Christianity against unbelievers through the study of nature. The first set of eight lectures was delivered by Richard Bentley in 1692. He was a scholar and divine, Master of Trinity, Cambridge, and expounded Newton’s Principia in defence of theism. In the eighteenth century many eminent theologians delivered these lectures on similar lines. Samuel Clarke lectured in 1704 on ‘Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God’; the lectures were subsequently published. In 1711–12 William Derham, Vicar of Upminster and F.R.S., delivered his course, published in 1713 as the well-known Physico-Theology. John Clarke, D.D., lectured in 1719 on ‘An Enquiry into the cause and origin of Moral Evil’, published in 1721. It was based on observation and experience and was directed against the materialism of Pierre Boyle. Bishop Blackall and many other churchmen delivered Boyle lectures and later published them. Even the unorthodox William Whiston, Cambridge Professor of Mathematics, being in holy orders (he was Vicar of Lowestoft in 1693–1703), was also charged to deliver Boyle lectures in 1707. It is evident that these lectures did not preach an old-fashioned orthodoxy but tried to find a synthesis of revelation with science. Similar lectures were delivered by independent lecturers on their own initiative. Thus James Tunstall, D.D., 1710–72, tutor in St. John’s College, Cambridge, later Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Potter, and Vicar of Rochdale, Lanes, delivered a course of public lectures on ‘Natural and Revealed Religion’ in the Chapel of St. John’s in the sixties. The course was interrupted by his new appointment, but was published in a complete form of twenty-seven lectures in 1765. Although the point of view was definitely Anglican, the course was delivered in an objective, academic form and was based on sound theological and general learning. A little later another Anglican divine, William Jones, M.A., F.R.S., and a well-known author of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, lectured in his parish church of Nayland in Suffolk. In 1786–7, he delivered sixteen lectures, on the ‘Figurative language of the Holy Scriptures’ (eleven lectures), on the ‘Relations between Old and New Testaments’ (four lectures) and on ‘Natural evidences of Christianity’ (one lecture). They were published in 1787. These lectures were much more than a defence of orthodoxy, they were instructive and enlightening to the average adult listener. In 1743–5 Benjamin Parker (D.N.B.), an autodidact, delivered long courses of lectures on theology and philosophy to popular audiences at ‘Sir Isaac Newton’ Head of Holborn. He was the author of Philosophical Meditations and the Christian Philosopher. Heterodoxy also had its public lectures. The well-known eccentric divine John Henley, although officially a priest of the Church of England, in fact preached and lectured on heterodox opinions. But more outstanding was another public lecturer, David Williams, 1738–1816. He was a pioneer as an educational reformer, as a religious and political thinker and as a passionate defender of the principle of tolerance. Educated by a Dissenting minister, he went to Carmarthen Academy, which at that time was under Evan Davies, known for his heterodox views. Williams was ordained in 1758 and after ministering in a few Dissenting communities he moved to London in 1773. He set up a school in Lawrence Street, Chelsea, ari started his career of a radical reformer. He conducted the school on principles mainly based on Locke and Rousseau. He used the scientific methods of experiment and actual knowledge of facts from experience and not from book learning. He formed a small club at Chelsea of radical reformers, which included Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Bentley, the manufacturer, and James Stuart, the painter and architect, known as ‘Athenian Stuart’ for his archaeological excavations in Athens (see D.N.B.). The members of the club discussed ‘universal religion’ and ‘rational devotion’ based on reason and not on dogmas. Williams, with Franklin’s aid, wrote and published A Liturgy on the universal principles of Religion and Morality in 1776. He sent copies to Frederick the Great and Voltaire and receved letters from both of them approving his scheme. In 1776 Williams leased the vacant chapel in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, and started regular Sunday services using his Liturgy. On weekdays he lectured for two years on ‘The universal principles and duties of Religion and Morality’, which were published in two volumes in 1779. He had a group of regular auditors from the ranks of radical intellectuals, which included Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist, and Daniel Charles Solander, the Swedish-born botanist. After a few years Williams moved from Margaret Street Chapel to the British Coffee House, Charing Cross, where he preached and lectured, but evidently discontinued his Sunday services. He encountered opposition and even slander and a lampoon was published calling him ‘Orpheus, Priest of Nature’. As a matter of fact this nickname was given to him by his friend Benjamin Franklin and was used later by his enemies. Williams took an active part in promoting religious and political tolerance and published in 1779 The nature and extent of intellectual Liberty, and in 1782 Letters on political Liberty. The French leader Brissot, who was in London in 1783, translated it into French. Williams strongly protested against dogmatic inculcation of ideas into the minds of youth quite irrespective of whether the dogmas represented truth or falsehood. At the same time he founded a ‘Society for promoting reasonable and humane improvement in the discipline and instruction of Youth’. He lectured to the Society on education for several years and in 1789 he published his course of fifty-four lectures in three volumes. He also had a class of adults whom he instructed in politics. In 1789 his Lectures on Political Principles, read to students under the author’s direction appeared. In the preface Williams says: ‘The last twelve years of the author’s life have been applied to the assistance of mature age, or of persons approaching maturity, but of defective education. Perceiving the common academical mode of reading, and pronouncing observations or advice, had little effect on memories not retentive; he formed the students into parties for and against the most celebrated writers on Political Economy; and converted to his purpose a prevalent passion in Englishmen, which often embarrassed him. … To hesitate, to doubt, or to question established authorities, is more conducive to a habit of profitable reading, than the effort of committing opinions to memory … and combine the passion for eloquence with public and scientific principles …’ thus to ‘improve the national judgment and taste’. In these lectures and discussion classes Williams used methods of adult education which much later were adopted by University Tutorial Classes. Strangely enough his pioneering activities in adult education and his original contributions to educational theory and practice were soon forgotten and he is known to posterity only as the founder of the ‘Literary Fund’. For many years Williams had an idea of creating a fund in aid of ‘distressed authors’ to help writers who propagated unpopular opinions and made no profit from their publications. After many attempts he finally succeeded in forming a society and a ‘Literary Fund’ was established. Only two years after his death in 1816 the fund was incorporated as ‘Royal Literary Fund’ in 1818 and became one of this country’s famous foundations. In 1792 Williams went to France and together with Thomas Paine and Joseph Priestley received French citizenship. This step made him still more unpopular and to his contemporaries he was one of the chief infidels and revolutionaries.
