ABSTRACT
In preceding chapters the application of systems-analytical approaches to the design of instruction has been described. These applications have been made, in some instances, to individual courses or training programs and in others, to more comprehensive blocks of instruction. The development and implementation of individualized instruction, which was pioneered by schools in the Philadelphia, Duluth, and Bloomfield Hills, Mich., school districts, are examples of the use of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) on a fairly broad scale (Esbensen, 1968; Glaser, 1964; Morgan, 1969). The systems approach, as a tool for planning, got its start in education as teaching innovations such as programmed instruction and individualized learning were being introduced into classrooms (Flanagan, 1967). The focus of these events was on the direct instructional processes and often ignored other conditions in the school, many of which directly or indirectly affected the success of the innovation which was being introduced (Corrigan & Kaufman, 1965). Such variables as class scheduling, teacher roles, facilities design, fund availability, administrative functions, and many others, were often fixed, or at least difficult to alter. When treated as “givens” in the school environment some of these variables could significantly constrain teaching innovations and limit their potential for improved learning quality (Morgan & Bushnell, 1967).
