ABSTRACT
One of the most common and cost-effective applications of photovoltaics (PVs) is the stand-alone system, which typically employs a PV array to charge a battery. In many cold-climate regions, PV–battery stand-alone systems are attracting increasing attention. Before designing a stand-alone PV system, ensure that it makes sense. The ‘loss-of-load probability’ is a common yardstick for stand-alone PV systems. The designer of a stand-alone PV system should determine the level of reliability required by the user and then size the system accordingly. Stand-alone systems are quite simple. Many people therefore assume that their design and sizing is simple. In cold climates, optimization is complicated by low temperatures and, at those sites susceptible to it, rime and snow accumulation. Few analytical optimization methods have been adapted to account for battery temperature, which will vary in typical stand-alone systems. Accustomed to traditional means of electricity generation and distribution, they are reluctant to consider alternatives.
