ABSTRACT
Over the twentieth century, every aspect of the shape and size of science has changed. Not only has the list of countries involved in the scientific effort expanded; the countries themselves have changed their boundaries, their names, their independent or colonial status. Two imperial eras have come and gone — those of Western Europe and Eastern Europe — and with them patterns in scientific relations that reflected and reinforced larger geopolitical forces. The intellectual map of science has likewise been transformed, through differentiation within broad disciplines established in the nineteenth century; through the emergence of major new conglomerations; and in recent years through the blurring of disciplinary boundaries themselves. While the categories of institutions that house science have endured, the institutions themselves have evolved differently in different national contexts and under the influence of a shifting set of patronage relations: academies have faded; in some areas institutions based on private philanthropy have been overshadowed, while in others private funding behemoths have emerged; an evolving set of industries has invested and disinvested in research capacities, and extended their influence into the academic sphere; and areas of government research have waxed and waned, as a shifting set of nations has shouldered responsibility for war, the environment, and other global problems.
