ABSTRACT
The title of "emir" or "commander" had hitherto been used by provincial governors appointed by the caliph; but, since the 'Abbasid caliphs were responsible for the massacre of nearly all the Umayyad family, there could be no question of 'Abd-ar-Rahman recognising the caliph in any way. It has been suggested that the Umayyads achieved unity from this heterogeneous body by identifying their cause with that of Islam, but there are complexities which this suggestion does not explain. While the Umayyads were thus busy establishing their rule throughout the territories that had come into their hands, there were no events of primary importance on the northern frontier, though there was a certain amount of activity. When 'Abd-ar-Rahman died in 852, the Umayyad state was prospering, and appeared to be strong and securely established. Yet the events showed that this appearance was deceptive, and that in reality the structure was fragile and precarious.
