ABSTRACT
Ab u r g e o n i n g l i t e r a t u r e i n p o l i t i c a l science a r g u e s t h a t n o r m s are b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n s e q u e n t i a l in i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h a t t r a n s n a t i o n a l n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t o r s are key i n s t i g a t o r s a n d p r o m o t e r s o f n e w n o r m s ( F i n n e m o r e a n d S i k k i n k 1998; Risse-Kappen 1995; S m i t h 1997; K a t z e n s t e i n 1996; Lips c h u t z 1992: 3 8 9 - 4 2 0 ; W a p n e r 1995: 3 1 1 - 4 0 ; Boli a n d T h o m a s 1999; P e t e r s o n 1992: 3 7 5 - 7 6 ; T h o m a s 2001; N a d e l m a n n 1990: 4 7 9 - 5 2 6 ; Klotz 1995; F i n n e m o r e 1996; C r a w f o r d 1993: 3 7 - 6 1 ; P r i c e 1998; Risse, R o p p , a n d S i k k i n k 1999; K h a g h r a m , Riker, a n d S i k k i n k 2 0 0 2 ) . The i n s i g h t s f r o m s o m e o f t h e n o r m s l i t e r a t u r e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s has s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g parallels w i t h w o r k i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law ( S l a u g h t e r 1 9 9 8 ) . O t h e r s c h o l a r s suggest t h a t t h e r e m a y be i m p o r t a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e way n o r m s w o r k d o m e s t i c a l l y a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y ( S u n s t e i n 1 9 9 7 ) . W h a t t h e s e l i t e r a t u r e s have n o t yet u n d e r s t o o d a d e q u a t e l y is t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t r a n s n a t i o n a l n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t o r s a n d i n t e r n a - t i o n a l legal rules. T h u s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s essay is t o b e g i n t o d e l i n e a t e t h e processes t h r o u g h w h i c h t r a n s n a t i o n a l advocacy n e t w o r k s b u i l d a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. At r a n s n a t i o n a l advocacy n e t w o r k i n c l u d e s t h o s e r e l e v a n t a c t o r s
w o r k i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y o n a n issue w h o a r e b o u n d t o g e t h e r b y s h a r e d values, ac o m m o n d i s c o u r s e , a n d d e n s e exchanges o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d services. Advocacy n e t w o r k s o f t e n r e a c h b e y o n d p o l i c y c h a n g e t o a d v o - cate a n d i n s t i g a t e changes i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d n o r m a t i v e basis u p o n w h i c h i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s take place (Keck a n d S i k k i n k 1 9 9 8 ) . W h e n t h e y succeed, t h e y a r e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f a n e x p l a n a t i o n for c h a n g e s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, b u t b e c a u s e t h e y o f t e n w o r k b e h i n d t h e scenes, t h e i r r o l e m a y n o t always be r e c o g n i z e d . U s i n g t h e cases o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k s a r o u n d h u m a n r i g h t s a n d violence a g a i n s t w o m e n , Iwill h i g h l i g h t t h e role o f these n e t w o r k s i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f issues, a g e n d a s e t t i n g , a n d h e l p i n g t o b u i l d a n d e n f o r c e i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o r m s , t h a t is, i n t h e social c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r u l e o f l a w . ' I n p o l i t i c a l science, t h e w o r d s social construction are s o m e t i m e s
used w i t h o u t m u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n as t o h o w , w h e n , a n d why s u c h social c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r s , o r w h a t its l i m i t s are. I t suggests ap r o c e s s t h a t is q u i t e a b s t r a c t a n d t h a t h a p p e n s m a i n l y a t t h e level o f d i s c o u r s e . 2T h e social c o n s t r u c t i o n s t o r y o f n e t w o r k s is ac o n c r e t e a n d active s t o r y a b o u t g r o u p s w h o strive t o r e - c r e a t e t h e i r w o r l d . M a r t h a F i n n e m o r e a n d Icall t h i s process strategic social construction, i n w h i c h a c t o r s s t r a t e -
gize r a t i o n a l l y t o r e c o n f i g u r e p r e f e r e n c e s , i d e n t i t i e s , o r social c o n t e x t ( F i n n e m o r e a n d Sikkink 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e process o f s t r a t e g i c social c o n s t r u c - t i o n , h o w e v e r , takes place w i t h i n c o n s t r a i n t s a n d l i m i t s , t h o s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d as well as t h o s e o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . W h e n n e t w o r k s e n c o u n t e r t h e legal w o r l d , t h o s e l i m i t s also i n c l u d e t h e l i m i t s o f law, a w o r l d w i t h w h i c h n o t all n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( N G O s ) are i n t i m a t e l y familiar. N e t w o r k s differ w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f a n d i n t e r e s t i n law. H u m a n r i g h t s n e t w o r k s have l o n g i n v o l v e d i n t e r n a - t i o n a l a n d d o m e s t i c legal scholars, a n d law h a s b e e n a n essential c o m - p o n e n t o f h u m a n r i g h t s a c t i v i s m ) I n t e r n a t i o n a l w o m e n ' s activism has focused m u c h less exclusively o n legal rules, a l t h o u g h w o m e n ' s n e t - w o r k s are i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f legal rules o n issues o f v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w o m e n (Basu 1995; B u n c h a n d Reilly 1 9 9 4 ) . I n t h i s essay, Idiscuss t h e diverse ways t h a t n e t w o r k a c t o r s c o n -
t r i b u t e t o t h e social c o n s t r u c t i o n o f legal rules. T h e y h e l p b u i l d legal n o r m s b y b r i n g i n g n e w ideas a n d issues i n t o p o l i c y d e b a t e s , b y serving as s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t e s t i m o n y , a n d i n s o m e cases b y a c t u a l l y d r a f t i n g legal rules. Advocacy n e t w o r k s e s p o u s i n g n o r m s also p r o m o t e n o r m i m p l e m e n t a t i o n b y p u b l i c i z i n g t h e existence o f legal n o r m s a n d d o c u m e n t i n g r u l e - b r e a k i n g b e h a v i o r . I n s o m e cases n e t w o r k s a n d N G O s facilitate i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i t i g a t i o n , p r e s s u r e t a r g e t a c t o r s t o a d o p t new policies a n d laws a n d t o r a t i f y t r e a t i e s , a n d m o n i t o r c o m p l i a n c e w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s . N e t w o r k s c o n t r i b u t e t o c h a n g i n g p e r c e p - t i o n s t h a t b o t h s t a t e a n d societal a c t o r s m a y have o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a n d t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s , b y h e l p i n g t o t r a n s f o r m t h e discursive a n d legal w o r l d w i t h i n w h i c h i n t e r e s t s are f o r m u l a t e d . B u t t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l i m i t s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s t o t h e c h a n g e s t h a t
n e t w o r k s c a n p r o v o k e . N o t all issues l e n d t h e m s e l v e s equally, o r easily, t o t h e social c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n e w legal rules. P o w e r f u l s t a t e s b l o c k t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f legal rules c o n t r a r y t o t h e i r p e r c e i v e d i n t e r e s t s , a n d n e t - w o r k s t h e m s e l v e s are o f t e n p e r m e a t e d b y i n f o r m a l o r h i d d e n p o w e r a s y m m e t r i e s t h a t raise s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e capabilities.
