ABSTRACT
Sorcery or demonic magic became associated with witchcraft by the end of the Middle Ages, and the Church and demonologists came increasingly to attribute all magical acts to the agency of the devil. Although a widespread belief in the existence of witchcraft predated the early modern period, a notable intensification in prosecutions for it occurred during the century c. 1560–1660. In Spain and Italy was undertaken by the inquisition, which was more concerned with enforcing orthodoxy than locating diabolism and required a higher standard of proof than accusations of witchcraft could provide. Across Europe, the average estimate that only 40 to 50 per cent of those who came to trial for witchcraft were actually executed does not suggest that the judgements were driven by panic. Witchcraft provided both an explanation and a remedy for the misfortunes people experienced, and therefore such accusations constituted both a rational and a reasonable response in their own terms.
