ABSTRACT
Heavy metals are ubiquitous environmental contaminants in an industrialized society, and thus, the concern over the possible health hazards and ecosystem effects of heavy metals has increased. However, like organic pollutants, metals are not degraded and are accumulated in environments as well as in living organisms where they cause toxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects. Contamination of soil and water with toxic metals represents a serious threat for the ecosystem and human health and, thus, requires the proper implementation of appropriate remedial measures. Although the application of many bioremediation and phytoremediation cleanup technologies is rapidly expanding, these approaches also have many limitations that should be addressed carefully for the proper implementation of cleanup technologies so that the contaminated environments can be restored.
