ABSTRACT
Cause-effect relationships exist both between "bad" and "good" causes. Since any given health phenomenon may have more than one cause and consequence, multiple approaches toward analyzing causes are necessary. Descriptive studies, which report health phenomena beyond a single observation. Statistical inference uses a series of observations to calculate degrees of uncertainty in comparisons of various data sets. Prevalence rates, which can be described as, disease frequency at a given point in time or over a period of time, independent of the moment of its occurrence as it appears in a population of interest. Abductive reasoning, in particular, is an increasingly promising way of reasoning that is currently a subject of intense refinements and developments in research, including medical research. Perhaps the most important source of fallacies in medical and scientific thinking in general is to derive conclusions and make proposals about causal relationships based on only one fulfilled criterion of a cause-effect link.
