ABSTRACT
This chapter highlights several critical historical events that are relevant to how economic and cultural changes in society have influenced school reform and principals. Northern cities were the focal point for social change following the American Revolution. The Common School movement solidified universal enrollment for boys and girls, the importance of local democratic control in educational decisions, age grading, curriculum centered on civic engagement, and teacher training and certification. Administrative progressives built a hierarchical system of control headed by a chief executive/superintendent, who relayed information and directives to principals acting as middle managers between the district and classroom. The Civil Rights Era was a time of remarkable change and conflict. Between 1920 and 1945 the USA suffered through the Great Depression and World War II, but by the 1950s the USA had the world's strongest military and a booming economy. John Chubb and Terry Moe arguments set the stage for greater accountability in public education.
