ABSTRACT
A goal is the cognitive representation of an end-state a person selects, commits to, and is motivated to achieve. Goals vary in level or utility and in specificity. Level energizes behavior and specificity guides behavior. Subgoals provide feedback about progress and about self-efficacy for goal achievement. The value or utility of a goal, the probability of achievement, and the combination determines goal selection according to expectancy-value and expected utility theory. Goal achievement behavior proceeds from a to-go perspective—that is, how much is left to be achieved. But also from a to-date perspective—that is, how much has been achieved already. Goals can be activated without a person’s awareness. Usually, goal success raises future goals while failure lowers them. Achievement valence refers to positive emotions that stem from goal achievement.
