ABSTRACT
Chapter 2 contextualizes the emergence of the association era and highlights its historical significance as a reference for the contemporary pursuit of women’s movements for equality. It illustrates how Indonesian Muslim women encounter colonialism, Western feminism, nationalism, and Islamic reformism and how these intersecting forces constitute the material conditions for both Islamic and feminist ideas and practices to either converge or diverge in the Indonesian setting. I locate in the association era a site for colonial, Islamic, and feminist encounters for addressing oppressive practices and promoting gender equality specific to each group. Colonial feminists purported to support colonial agendas and their own interests as a superior group, whereas native women’s movements collectively sought to promote emancipation from local oppressive cultural and religious practices and colonialism that prevented them from gaining emancipation in the private and public spheres. The emergence of Muslim women’s movements, such as Aisyiyah (19l7) of Muhammadiyah, Persatuan Islam Istri (Persistri, 1936) of Persatuan Islam (Persis), and Muslimat of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU, l946) shows how they did not just serve as auxiliary members in their parent organizations but contributed to the reworking of gender roles in the private and public spheres. However, their connection to the agendas of the parent organizations influenced the way they promoted progress and voiced their disagreement with other women’s movements. They often disagreed with secular feminist views on a number of issues, including polygamy, veiling, and the 1937 Marriage Bill. Despite their disagreements, the first Women’s Congress in December 1928 united them on the importance of addressing abusive marriages, advocating for the equal value of women as human beings, recognizing their maternal virtue, and making the personal political. In many subsequent congresses, different degrees of exposure to secular feminism, nationalism, and Islamic reformism exacerbated the widening gap of the divergence between Islam and feminism during the association era.
