Introduction

The age of revolution in modern European history began in the decade of the 1780s, 230 years ago. This chapter presents four themes to pursue through the complicated twists and turns of seventy very turbulent years of European history, from 1780 to 1850. One major theme is economic developments. The second major theme concerns social transformation, the movement from the pre-1789 society of orders to a civil society of property owners. The third theme is the expansion and transformation of the power of the state. European states of the 1780s were generally shaped by a tense relationship, containing strong elements of both conflict and cooperation, between a monarch with claims to absolute rule and the constituted bodies of the society of orders. The fourth theme is the development of political participation and the conflicts that stemmed from it.