ABSTRACT
Photovoltaic solar cells, which utilize incidental solar radiation to generate electrical energy, are widely considered as potential renewable energy devices capable of meeting the increasing energy demand.1 Photovoltaic solar cells are often classified based on the materials employed to achieve energy conversion, which include both inorganic and organic carbon-based materials. Despite the dominant use of inorganic materials in solar cell technology, organic photovoltaic (OPV) solar cells have generated significant scientific interest, owing to the inexpensive fabrication process, light weight, ease of manufacturing, flexible structure, and low operating temperature.2,3 Although state-of-the-art OPV solar cells lack the efficiency for large-scale applications and have stability issues,4 their low production costs5 have resulted in significant research efforts to improve their efficiency. Such efforts have led to a substantial increase in the power conversion efficiency (PCE) over the past decade with a maximum efficiency of 12% reported recently.6
