ABSTRACT
In almost all modern electronic circuits, transistors are the key active element. By reducing the dimensions of metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) transistors and the wires connecting them in integrated circuits, it has been possible to increase the density and complexity of integrated systems. For a pMOS transistor, the current is carried by holes instead of electrons. The electrical characteristics of pMOS transistors can be obtained from the ones of nMOS transistors by reversing the sign of all currents and voltages. A model for MOS transistor capacitances is required to accurately predict the ac behavior of circuits. Different noise sources caused by fluctuations of the device characteristics affect the operation of MOS transistors. Miniaturization of transistors has influenced almost all levels of the circuit design. While being subject to laws of physics, device technology development, and economic factors, the limits to this trend should also be application dependent due to power consumption issues.
