ABSTRACT
Introduction 634 Analog vs. Digital Controllers 634 The Controller’s Function 635 Feature Checklist 635
On/Off and Direct-Connected Controllers 636 On/Off Relay Outputs 636 Direct-Connected Controllers 636
Analog Controllers 637 Input Variations 638 Control Modes 639 Nonlinear Controllers 640 Special Features 641 Displays 642 Balancing Methods 643 Mounting 644 Servicing 645
Digital Electronic Controllers 645 Advantages and Disadvantages 645 Hardware Components 646 Software Capability 647 Faceplates and Programmers 648
Bibliography 649
4.5 CRT DISPLAYS 650
Introduction 651 Display Options 651 The Total System 653
Data Display Options 654 Keyboard 656
Display Capabilities 657 Refresh Memory 657 Character and Format Control 658 Vector Generator 658 Display Initiation 659 Propagation and Termination 661
Conclusions 662 Bibliography 662
4.6 DCS: BASIC TRENDS AND ADVANCES 663
Introduction 666 Connectivity and Integration 666
Organizing the Project 667 The Future 669
Control Advances 669 Basic PID Algorithms 669 Auto-Tuning 671 Model-Based Control Algorithms 671 DCS Bid Package 673
Costs 674
Conclusions 674 References 676
4.7 DCS: CONTROL AND SIMULATION
ADVANCES 677
Introduction 677 Performance Monitoring 678 Controller Tuning 678
On-Demand Tuning 679 Adaptive Tuning 679
Fuzzy Logic Control 679 Model Predictive Control 681 Neural Network Applications 682 Process and Control Simulation 684 Conclusion 686 Reference 686 Bibliography 686
4.8 DCS: INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 687
Introduction 687 Installation 688
Power and Grounding 688 System Assembly 688 HVAC and Heat Tracing 689 Field Wiring and Checkout 689 Bus Installation 689 Installing HART Networks 690
Commissioning 690 Training and Preliminary Checkout 690 Fieldbus Testing 691 Process Startup 691 Commissioning of Control Loops 692 Advanced Control 692
Conclusion 692 References 692 Bibliography 692
4.9 DCS: INTEGRATION WITH BUSES AND NETWORKS 693
Introduction 693 Bus Integration 693
DCS Fieldbus Support 694 Field Networks 694 Fieldbus Devices 695 Function Blocks 696
Network Integration 697 Recent Integration Trends 698
Conclusions 698 References 698 Bibliography 699
4.10 DCS: INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 700
Introduction 700 Existing Systems 700
MODBUS Interface 700 OPC Interface 702
Motor Controls 702 Fieldbus Interface 703
Safety Systems 703 Conclusions 705 Reference 705 Bibliography 705
4.11 DCS: MANAGEMENT OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS 706
Introduction 706 Abnormal Condition Management 706
Types of Control 707 Need for Operator Intervention 707
Psychological Basis for Intervention 707 Detect Phase 708 Sort/Select and Monitor Phases 709 Plan/Act Phase 709 Response Time 709 Planning the Intervention 709 Types of Operations 709
Managing Abnormal Conditions 710 Control Room Design 711 Operator Training 712 Alarm System Design 712 Graphical User Interface 716
Conclusions 718 Acknowledgments 718 References 718 Bibliography 718
4.12 DCS: MODERN CONTROL GRAPHICS 720
Introduction 720 Function Block Representation 720
Standard for Process Control 721 Function Block Modes 721 Function Block Types 722
Sequential Function Chart (SFC) 723 Ladder Diagrams 724 Batch S88 725 Safety Logic 725 Conclusions 725 Bibliography 726
4.13 DCS: OPERATOR’S GRAPHICS 727
Introduction 727 Operator Console Equipment 727
Video Display 728 Keyboards 728 Peripheral Devices 729
Remote and Web-Based Stations 729 Remote Clients 729 Web Pages 730
Operator Graphics 730 Types of Displays 731
Overview Graphic Displays 731 Graphic Displays 731 Faceplate with Detailed Display 732 Trend Displays 732
Static Graphic Components 732 Dynamic Elements 732
Dynamos 733 Aliases 734 Display Access 735
Process Performance Monitoring 736 Process Graphic Data Interfaces 736 Conclusion 738 Bibliography 738
4.14 DCS: SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE 739
Introduction 740 Analog Control 740
Direct Digital Control 741 Distributed Control System 741
Functional Components 742 DCS Control Network 742 Operator Console 744 Core Architectural Components 745 International Fieldbus Standards 749
Data Highway Designs 749 Control Network 749 Ethernet Configuration 749
Alarm Management 750 Alert Processing 750
DCS Attributes 752 Reliability 753 Mean Time between Failure 753
Pricing 754 Bibliography 755
4.15 DIGITAL READOUTS AND GRAPHIC DISPLAYS 757
Introduction 758 Human Factors 759 Size and Contrast 759 Application Notes 760
Mechanical and Electrical Counters 760 Gas Discharge Displays 761 Cathode Ray Tube Displays 762 Rear Projection Displays 763 Light-Emitting Diode Displays 763 Liquid Crystal Displays 764
Passive Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays 765
Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays 765
Vacuum Fluorescent Displays 767 New Trends in Graphic Displays 768
Plasma Displays 768 Field Emission Displays 768 Electroluminescent Displays 769
References 769 Bibliography 769
4.16 FIELDBUSES AND NETWORK PROTOCOLS 770
Introduction 770 Communications Hierarchy 770
Field Level 771 Control Level 771 Operations Level 771 Enterprise Level 772 Data Models 772
Network Basics 772 OSI Reference Model 772 Physical Layer 773 Data Link Layer 775 Network Layer 777 Transport Layer 777 Application Layer 777
Fieldbus Protocols 778 AS-i 778 HART 780 PROFIBUS DP/PROFIBUS PA 781 FOUNDATION Fieldbus 782 MODBUS 784 ControlNet 785 Industrial Ethernet 785 Netwide Data Exchange 786
OPC Servers 786 XML 787 FDT/DTM 787
Conclusion 788 References 788 Bibliography 789 Acronyms 789
4.17 HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACE EVOLUTION 790
Introduction 790 Functions of the Control System HMI 790
Visualization and Control 791 Process Alarming 792 Trending 792
DCS Consoles 793 DCS Console Graphic Standards 793 DCS HMI Redundancy 794 DCS HMI Chronological Evolution 795
The Open HMI 795 Open HMI Display Standards 796 Documentation 796 Open HMI Evolution Chronology 796
Evolution of HMI Architecture 797 Evolution of Plant Networking 799 Evolution of Control Rooms 800 Evolution of the Process Operator 801 2005 and Beyond 802
Distributed and Mobile Control 802 Remote Operation of the Plant 803 The Future 803
References 804
4.18 INDICATORS, ANALOG DISPLAYS 805
Terminology 805 Electrical Movements 806 Indication of Measurements 806
Fixed-Scale Indicators 807 Movable-Scale Indicators 808
Parametric Indication 809 Digital Indicators 810 Acoustic Indicators 810 Bibliography 811
4.19 LIGHTS 812
Introduction 812 Light Source Characteristics 813
Light Selection 814 Colors and Flashing 814 Lenses and Operating Environments 814 Light Components 814
Lamp Types 815 Incandescent Lamps 815 Neon Lamps 815 Solid-State Lamps (LEDs) 816 Virtual Lights 816
Checklist 816 Conclusions 816 Bibliography 817
4.20 RECORDERS, OSCILLOGRAPHS, LOGGERS, TAPE RECORDERS 818
Introduction 819 Sensor Mechanisms 819
Galvanometric Recorders 820 Light-Beam Recorders (Oscillographs) 820 Potentiometric Recorders 820 Open Loop Recorders 821 Linear Array Recorders 821
Recording Methods 822 Ink-Writing Systems 822 Inkless Systems 822 Paperless Systems 822
Charts and Coordinates 822 Circular Chart Recorders 823 Strip-Chart Recorders 824 Multiple Recorders 824 X-Y Recorders 825 Event Recorders 826
Tape Recording 826 Data Loggers 827 Bibliography 828
4.21 SWITCHES, PUSHBUTTONS, KEYBOARDS 829
Introduction 830 Switch Designs and Operation 830
Switching Action 831 Contact Arrangements 831 Switching Elements and Circuits 831 Grades of Switching Devices 833
Types of Switching Devices 833 Pushbuttons 833 Toggle Switches 836 Rotary Switches 837 Thumbwheel Switches 838
Application and Selection 839 Human Factors 839 Display Movement 841 Error Prevention 842 Mechanical Features 844 Environmental Considerations 844
Bibliography 844
4.22 TOUCH-SCREEN DISPLAYS 845
Introduction 845 Touch Technology 845
Advantages 845 Touch-Screen Designs 845 Evaluating Touch Technologies 848
Overall System Design 851 Mechanical Considerations 851 Physical Attributes 851 Programming Considerations 852
Bibliography 853
4.23 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER AND VOLTAGE SUPPLIES (UPS AND UVS) 854
Introduction 854 Uninterruptible Voltage Sources (UVS) 855 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) Features 856 Networks and Buses 856 Power Failure Classifications 857
Source Failure 857 Equipment Failure (Inverter) 858 Common Bus Branch (Load) Failure 860
System Components 861 Rotating Equipment 861 Batteries 862 Static Inverters 863 Bus Transfer Switches 865 Protective Components 865
Standby Power Supply Systems 865 Multicycle Transfer System 865 Sub-Cycle Transfer System 866 No-Break Transfer System 866
System Redundancy 866 Specifications 866 Bibliography 867
4.24 WORKSTATION DESIGNS 868
Classification of Workstations 868 Hardware Architecture 868 Function 869
Hardware Components 870 Software Features 871 Selection of Correct Platform 871 Comparing Various Operating Platforms 872
Cost 872 Reliability 872 Manageability and Administration 873 Scalability 873 Security 873 Error Handling 873 Integration of Software and Hardware 873 Openness 874
Conclusions 874 Glossary 874 Bibliography 875
In addition to this section, safety alarm systems are discussed in several other parts of this handbook, particularly in connection with DCS and CRT systems in Chapter 4 and PLCs in Chapter 5. The subject of process alarm management is separately covered in Section 1.6. This section concentrates on dedicated, conventional annunciators and other alarm devices.
