ABSTRACT
Scholars of early modern Europe have identified many bridges that existed between literate, semi-literate, and illiterate society, and many points at which oral and written culture intermingled. Tales and songs were written, sung, printed, and retold, only to be modified and recorded again based on influences from both above and below; people hired others of various abilities to read and write for them; and legal documents incorporated quotations and statements from witnesses and arguments collected orally, which sometimes even drew on literary motifs. As a result, virtually everyone was touched by the written word, and conversely, what appeared in handwriting or print was influenced by oral forms. In short, one didn’t have to be literate oneself in order to be part of a written culture.
