ABSTRACT
A third area in which research begun during World War II became transformed by the actions of the military–industrial–academic complex and big science into technoscience during the Cold War, was the field of electronics which led to the development of digital computers, transistors and integrated circuits. Even before Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was completed there was planning for a greatly improved electronic computer that would serve as a basic model for computer architecture for much of the rest of the century. The second major change that would revolutionize computers was the replacement of vacuum tubes with transistor, and later, integrated chips. One of Intel's major innovations was the microprocessor. In 1969 the Japanese calculator company Busicom asked Intel to design a set of custom chips for its line of calculators. At the same time that transistors, core memories, integrated circuits, semiconductor memories and microprocessors were transforming computer hardware, significant changes were taking place in development of computer software.
